
Computers can do so much these days that it’s no longer a case of RSS feeds, widgets and social networking, we are now talking about thought-controlled prosthetic limbs for use in humans, protein folding being tackled by computer gamers, and talking touch screens to aid patients and this has all happened in the last 10 years – where will we be at the end of the next decade and would you like to be a part of this fast-paced evolving interactive environment?
There are so many jobs that you could take on from Software engineers and designers to information architects and cyber analysts. You could become a systems engineer, a programme analyst or an IT clinical systems educator. Your future is out there and is ready to be explored!
Check out the questions and answers below and let your imagination run wild with the possibilities. So many of our scientists are already working in this area so see what they have to say – just don’t get left behind!
Click on the characters next to each answer to find out more about the jobs that our scientists do when not answering your questions!
How does ink not dry inside a cartridge or bottle?
Smylie - 02 June 2011 - 3 answers - id: 710
Answered by: PhD research scholar in Microelectronics & Nanostructures
03 June 2011 18:27
Printers, as used in offices or at home, tend to use aqueous inks based on a mixture of water, glycol and dyes or pigments. So, they remain in liquid form inside a cartridge or bottle.
Answered by: Electronics & Communication Engineering student
04 December 2011 13:10
The ink inside a bottle or a cartridge does not get dried up very easily because, the ink in its liquid form has to get converted to gaseous form and then escape. But, a bottle or cartridge is air-locked. Hence, even if the ink turns to gaseous state, there is no place for it to escape.
This is the reason why an ink bottle gets dried up if the lid is kept open for a long time.
Answered by: Electronic engineer
12 October 2011 16:20
Most computer printers of the Ink Jet or Bubble jet type work a bit like a cake icing gun. They contain a bag filled with ink that is compressed with a spring against an electronically controlled nozzle that switches on & off the ink. The ink needs air to dry & as there is no air in the ink bag, it is only once the ink is sprayed out onto the print media where there is air that it starts to dry.
Will a child born today use a desktop pc as we know it?
Unknown - 26 November 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1255
Answered by: Electronic engineer
05 December 2011 17:13
Perhaps! Predicting the future of computing is a difficult task! But if that child starts to use a computer in 5 years time (2016), the desktop PC will probably still be around for processer intensive applications and the fact that educational establishments are very conservative. My personal prediction would be that school age children would probably be using some form of Tablet PC like the iPAD interactively with a teacher using a projected computerised screen at the front of the class. These technologies are currently available but in the future their cost will have fallen to a modern day equivalent of less than £200.
Fire service crew managers, disaster management planners and humanitarian architects are just some of the jobs related to this theme that could be for you in the future. When a disaster strikes, more often than not, we are not prepared for the sheer force of nature and the destructive power that it can have on buildings, landscapes, whole communities and on our world. From earthquakes to avalanches, forest fires to tsunamis, these disasters often attack with no warning leading to disastrous consequences such as loss of homes, livelihoods and loved ones. Could you be the one to step in and take charge? Could you help rebuild properties after a disaster, minimise disease spread or analyse the tourism impact on the country affected? There are so many ways that you could build your career within this area. Have a look through the questions below and take no chances. The world waits for no one!
Click on the characters next to each answer to find out more about the jobs that our scientists do when not answering your questions!
What qualifications would you need if you want to be part of an air rescue team?
Unknown - 03 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1269
Answered by: Mechanical engineering student
08 December 2011 15:00
There are the usual nationality, residency, age and fitness requirements which can be found on the RAF website here: http://www.raf.mod.uk/careers/canijoin/
Some positions on the team will require specific GCSEs and/or A-Levels, whereas other positions have no specific subject requirements as long as a sufficient grade is achieved.
I would like to help support families that have been caught in a disaster, how do you do this?
Unknown - 03 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1371
Answered by: UK Site Manager & Corporate Vice President
08 February 2012 13:55
You can support through a number of charities, the main one being through http://www.dec.org.uk/ as this brings together a number of UK charities for this. You can also donate on-line.
How long does an Architecture course at University last for?
Unknown - 25 August 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1266
Answered by: Engineering student
07 December 2011 17:15
It depends on what country you are studying in and varies from school to school. In Germany, for example, an architecture course lasts 4 years, but it is 3 years in the UK. In China, most universities have five-year architecture courses.
How can we reverse the effects of erosion on the UK coastline?
Unknown - 04 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1271
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 13:06
You cannot really reverse erosion…You can put in sea defences to generally slow the process down. However, this can in cases simply move the area of erosion further along the coast causing problems where there wasn’t previously.
A managed retreat is often the most effective method.
There is a section on the BBC GCSE bitesize website - http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/coasts/coastal_management_rev1.shtml
How do earthquakes happen?
Ritavonwoo - 14 May 2011 - 1 answer - id: 488
Answered by: Lecturer in forensic geophysics
17 May 2011 14:40
Fundamentally earthquakes usually happen when stress and strain builds up from moving continental plates is suddenly released, the origin of this being called the focus, and it's position on the ground surface called the epicenter. The released energy then radiates in all directions from the source. This sudden movement if underwater is bad news, as it displaces the water column, causing a Tsunami, as see recently in Japan.
How can you predict earthquakes?
Unknown - 05 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1267
Answered by: Engineering student
07 December 2011 22:44
Scientists still do not know many of the details of the physical processes involved in earthquakes and how to predict them. Despite considerable research efforts by seismologists, scientifically reproducible predictions cannot yet be made to a specific day or month. However, for well-understood faults the probability that a segment may rupture during the next few decades can be estimated.
How can scientists tell that San Francisco is overdue an earthquake?
Unknown - 03 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1355
Answered by: Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Planetary Science Group
04 February 2012 12:19
From what we understand about earthquakes in San Francisco we know how often they usually occur. So big earthquakes associated with the San Andreas fault (near San Francisco) occur roughly once every 150 years. The last one was in 1857 so more than 150 years have past since one happened and so we are now overdue an earthquake. This doesn't mean that one is going to happen tomorrow, it just means the chance of one happening is quite high. For every year that goes on past the "due date" for an earthquake, the chance of a large earthquake goes up. Again, it doesn't mean that one *will* happen, just that the chance of one is getting higher and higher. It may be another 150 years before San Francisco sees another earthquake, but the chance of this is very small.
How can I protect my house against an earthquake?
Rob - 04 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1272
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 13:17
FEMA (The US department responsible for Homeland security and resilience) have a wealth of sources to download from here – http://www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/howto/
A Summary includes: • Anchor Large Equipment Properly, • Anchor Tall Bookcases and Filing Cabinets, • Anchor and Brace Propane Tanks and Gas Cylinders, • Bolt Sill Plates to Foundations, • Brace Cripple Walls, • Install Latches on Drawers and Cabinet Doors, • Mount Framed Pictures and Mirrors Securely, • Restrain Desktop Computers and Appliances, • Use Flexible Connections on Gas and Water Lines.
Will Britain flood soon due to the rising sea levels?
amelia - 11 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1294
Answered by: Technical Manager
13 December 2011 17:14
Britain isn't about to be flooded - sea levels are rising very slowly, and most of Britain is reasonably elevated.
Why is sand the best material to be used against flooding?
Unknown - 08 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1277
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 13:32
Mainly because it is cheap and readily available! However soil can be equally used. . .
Eventually, even sandbags will let water in and will need replacing – they are not a “fix all” solution.
Why does flood water cause so much damage?
Unknown - 06 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1276
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 13:34
Flood water causes damage and is dangerous because it isn’t “normal water”. It will have pollutants, contaminates, debris and even small animals (in developing countries snakes and other dangerous animals can be brought into settlements). The water also aids in breeding infections and diseases.
That’s why all warnings to stay away from flood water should be adhered to.
Why do we still build houses in high flood risk areas?
John mc - 05 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1275
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 13:29
Unfortunately, many countries, including the UK, continue to build on floodplains even with the known risks that accompany such a decision. The biggest reason is that space is a premium in most countries and whole areas cannot be left unpopulated especially given the dramatic rises in the number of people on the planet. There is a kind of 'hopefully' attitude that offsets the possibility of a flood; a kind of “it wont happen to us” sentiment.
What will happen if the sea level rises?
Amy - 13 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1299
Answered by: Engineering student
18 December 2011 11:00
It will vary greatly by region. Here is an article about this topic. http://e360.yale.edu/content/feature.msp?id=2255
The temperature may vary from place to place. Some coastal areas will be inundated while others stay dry. Many low lying countries will be underwater, including large parts of the USA, UK, Holland, Bangladesh, and many Pacific Island countries.
What causes flooding?
Unknown - 04 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1273
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 13:25
Another excellent BBC GCSE Bitesize website has some helpful information on flooding here -
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/water_rivers/river_flooding_management_rev1.shtml
What can you do to prevent flooding?
Unknown - 08 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1278
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 13:38
There are many engineering solutions that can be implemented to stop or at least reduce flooding. Such as coastal sea defences, river levees etc.
However afforestation or replanting vegetation can also help and is generally more achievable (it's cheaper) for developing countries to do!
How can you try to protect your home from a flood?
Danny - 04 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1274
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 13:26
Government information can be found on the directgov website -
http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/HomeAndCommunity/WhereYouLive/FloodingInYourArea/DG_10014599
However, in a flooding emergency you should always follow local weather and government advice.
During disaster periods what input would the UK government realistically let young people have?
Unknown - 02 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1279
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 13:41
My personal opinion is not much – there is a lot of insurance and legal implications of taking young people into disaster areas, as I am sure you can appreciate! There is also the issue, with adults too, that putting untrained personnel into a disaster area can create further issues (they themselves can get into trouble and will need rescuing) . . . That said, I do think locally a lot would need doing that young adults could get involved with. In a large scale disaster, communities often have to “band together” and help each other out. Local food centres, shelters and even daycare for younger children could be provided by young adults. However, as the UK has never been tested it's hard to predict how they would react. Currently, young people are not considered within emergency planning procedures and therefore it would be on an ad-hoc basis.
Which has been the largest natural disaster recorded?
Lucy - 01 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1264
Answered by: Graduate Systems Engineer
06 December 2011 09:55
The worst natrual disaster by death toll is reported to have been the floods in China in 1931. I believe the Yellow River, Huai River and the Yangtze River are the ones to have flooded.
The death toll is unknown but estimates range from 145,000 to around 4,000,000 people.
What is a disaster? Is there a scale to determine what is disastrous and what is just bad?
Roz lloyd - 06 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1284
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 13:58
No, generally insurance costs, fatalities and magnitude of the event is used to compare and contrast.
There seem to be more natural disasters happening in recent years. Is this true or just perception due to improved communication/news reporting?
Unknown - 03 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1282
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 13:50
Exactly right - communications has increased.
Is it possible to prevent natural disasters at all (e.g. hurricanes)?
aims987 - 02 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1280
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 13:45
The simple answer is no.
We can prepare ourselves to better adapt and be resilient to disasters but for NATURAL disasters there is often little we can do. . .
If we engineer structures to be be more 'disaster proof' this can reduce collapse and thus injuries, but this isnt 100% accurate.
I am worried about all the natural disasters that are happening in the world as they seem to be happening more frequently, why is this?
Unknown - 04 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1256
Answered by: Science & Physics teacher
05 December 2011 19:17
The rate of natural disasters is relatively constant over long periods of time. They appear to be occurring more regularly because telecommunications and the internet makes it easier for you receive news of each disaster in almost real-time.
How can we predict disasters?
Unknown - 03 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1281
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 13:48
We can predict certain phenomena, such as increased seismic activity and weather disturbances, to a certain extent but we cannot generally predict disasters. Even methods to predict the natural phenomena (such as volcanoes and earthquakes) isn't 100% accurate!
How can tsunamis be prevented? Are we doing anything to add to the severity of these natural disasters?
Siobhan :) - 08 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1285
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 14:03
2 separate but excellent questions!
Tsunami – Tsunamis cannot be prevented but there are some mitigation strategies that can be implemented but generally evacuation is key to avoid mass fatality.
http://www.ess.washington.edu/tsunami/general/mitigation/mitigation.html
Human Factors – The area human activity has the greatest impact on disasters is in the meteorological world – weather! Climate change, with the associated arguments of the exact implications humanity is having on that, has changed our weather patterns and the frequency of extreme events.
Are volcanoes and earthquakes only present at fault lines?
Unknown - 05 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1283
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 13:58
Not always. There are such things as hotspots - Hawaii is the perfect case study.
http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanoes/
Earthquakes can also occur on fault lines no longer active and for more man-made reasons (such as subsidence).
How can we maintain the world's rainforests?
Unknown - 04 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1286
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 14:04
Being UK based the best website and organisation to look at is - http://www.rainforestconcern.org/
Do trees feel anything when a branch breaks off?
Leigh H - 20 May 2011 - 1 answer - id: 643
Answered by: Development Manager
27 May 2011 08:26
There was a book written several years ago called "The secret life of plants", which noted experiments conducted where the author claimed plants "scream" when leaves are removed. I don't recall the fine details, but I think it is natural to consider that when a plant suffers damage, there will be a reaction - to try to minimise the impact to the rest of the organism. A plant may need to take action to stop sap seeping out of the "wound" - just as our bodies stem the blood flow from a wound. However, do these actions constitute pain? For humans, we "feel" through our nervous system, therefore we can sense "pain" when we hurt ourselves. Plants don't have the same system of nerves, nor do they have brains, but does this stop them feeling pain? I think this is a philosophical answer - so I'm not qualified to comment, but I think we would need to understand if there are other systems that can provide senses - other than the ones we are familiar with in mammals. If there are, then other life forms may have some appreciation of the senses we take for granted!
Will the world actually end in 2012?
Jawsjones - 03 December 2011 - 2 answers - id: 1287
Answered by: Technician
06 February 2012 21:39
I'm going to say NO! There are always these predictions of Armageddon. The first one I remember was the world would end in 1989, then it was 1990, then 1995, then again in 1999, 2000, 2001, and 2005. After 2012 someone will simply attach some significance to some other date in the future.
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 14:09
My answer would be no ...
What would happen if the Earth stopped spinning?
Unknown - 08 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1289
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 14:13
A lengthy but interesting article on this topic can be found here -
http://www.esri.com/news/arcuser/0610/nospin.html
What are the best things to store in case of flooding/snow?
Unknown - 04 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1257
Answered by: Electronic engineer
05 December 2011 18:53
Items needed for basic survival such as food, drink, warm clothing, lighting (battery operated) & not forgetting prescribed medications. Also a wireless communication device such as a mobile phone or 2-way radio to summon help in an emergency (again make sure it's battery is charged and only powered on when needed) . As for food & drink, tinned food & bottled water have long shelf life’s & are sealed against the environment & do not need fridges or freezers to stay fresh so will help you stay alive till help arrives.
How late can a disaster warning go out?
Unknown - 04 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1288
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 14:11
The point of a disaster warning is to allow people to either evacuate if needed or make other necessary arrangements, therefore there isn't a specific answer...As long as people need. Unfortunately most disasters do not have a long enough warning period and it's rarely more than a few hours.
How do you know if you have carbon monoxide in your house?
Figgybisc - 09 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1295
Answered by: Technical Manager
13 December 2011 17:18
There are plenty of commercially available detectors - from the visual but passive cardboard-backed sensors to battery-driven sensors. Usually these are placed near boilers or other sources of flames where carbon monoxide, if present, will be first found.
How can I protect my car against frost?
Unknown - 03 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1296
Answered by: Electronic engineer
18 December 2011 18:12
Most cars come with a user manual which should contain the manufacturers (e.g. Ford, BMW, VW) recommendations of dealing with winter driving conditions such as engine antifreeze, winter engine oil, winter screen wash, window de-icing, battery maintenance and the types of tyres that can be used in cold climates to increase grip.
How can I prevent frozen pipes at home this winter?
Unknown - 05 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1300
Answered by: Planetarium Presenter
23 December 2011 11:58
There are a few simple things we can do to prevent pipes from becoming frozen.
The main ones are to insulate the pipe - this not only helps reduce heat losses if it's a heating or hot water pipe thus saving you heating bills, but it slows down how fast the pipe cools.
Ensure you run your heating regularly, even if you're not at home to keep the temperature of the house above 0 degrees celcius.
Further suggestions are given by Scottish Water, including what to do if the pipes do freeze: http://tinyurl.com/dyk5wlc
Who can I tell if my water is contaminated?
Unknown - 06 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1290
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 14:15
You should contact your water provider/authority.
How will I know if my home is in a disaster risk area?
Jess Button - 01 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1258
Answered by: Electronic engineer
05 December 2011 18:32
If the disaster is related to flooding from river or sea or even coastal erosion and many other environmental risks, then a good source of information is the Environment Agency website. http://maps.environment-agency.gov.uk/wiyby/wiybyController?x=531500.0&y=181500.0&topic=floodmap&ep=map&scale=3&location=London,%20City%20of%20London&lang=_e&layerGroups=default&textonly=off
Why doesn't the UK get hit by tornadoes?
Unknown - 02 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1301
Answered by: Planetarium Presenter
23 December 2011 12:05
The UK does experience tornadoes, though not nearly as many as the USA. About 50 as opposed to 1200 on average. However, you are more likely to see one here as there are fewer unpopulated areas.
http://www.uk-severe-weather.co.uk/uk-tornado-information.php
What is the difference between a hurricane and a tornado?
LittleWelshJo - 19 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1177
Answered by: Geotechnical Engineer
26 October 2011 20:51
Hi LittleWelshJo,
Brilliant question and something people often get confused with. The major difference is that hurricanes form over large areas of warm water such as warm oceans and they weaken when they move onto land. Tornadoes form on dry land where warm air collides with cold air and begins a rotational movement which can strengthen and form the typical tornado you are thinking of. Whilst tornadoes can form by themselves on dry land, they can also be produced when a hurricane forms so may be seen over the sea.
During a thunder storm can you use your phone and can you switch on/off your lights?
Unknown - 03 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1254
Answered by: Research Engineer, Lightning & Electrostatics
05 December 2011 15:15
Yes you can still do those things - it is possible that the storm can cause some interference which may stop these things working sometimes though.
What is the chance of Yellowstone erupting in the next decade?
Unknown - 06 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1291
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 14:19
Not likely (hopefully) - The USGS are your best source of information.
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/
I would like to volunteer to help people affected by disasters. What opportunities to do this are there?
Unknown - 07 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1292
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 13:03
Without knowing how old you are it’s hard to say! Under 18's will find it hard to find volunteer positions for insurance and legal reasons. It also depends on what aspects you want to help out with. . . If you are wanting to do hands-on work then this will definitely apply. One useful website is VSO - http://www.vso.org.uk/
However, there is still plenty to do at home. Getting involved with local box schemes or donating money to the Disaster Emergency Committee will ensure that your help goes to the right places.
How can we help countries recover from a disaster?
Unknown - 01 December 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1293
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
09 December 2011 14:21
The best way is through donating aid to a reputable charity - either money or goods; Oxfam, Red Cross, Disaster Emergency Committee, are all good bets!
What generates wind?
Unknown - 12 May 2011 - 1 answer - id: 491
Answered by: Soil Scientist
17 May 2011 20:51
Wind is air moving from one place to another. Like all gases, air moves in response to differences in pressure - from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. The two most important factors in the generation of these differences in pressure are the Earth's gravity, which pulls the air down towards the ground, and solar radiation, which heats the air up (either directly or by heating the ground which then heats the air above it). This is the basic process: air near the ground is heated up by the sun's rays. When a gas is heated, it expands, or becomes less dense. Our piece of air near the ground is thus lighter than the air above it (which is still cool) and so it rises up away from the ground. As it moves up, air from all around rushes in to fill the space it leaves behind - this rushing air is 'wind'.
You've asked this question under disasters, so perhaps you have hurricanes or tornados in mind when you ask about wind. A hurricane can be generally explained by the process I described above, if you imagine the air being heated very quickly over a large area - it creates a very low pressure area and surrounding air has to move very very fast to try to fill it up. A tornado is a bit (perhaps a lot) more complex, but in general the idea of differences in temperature creating differences in pressure, leading to (sometimes very rapid) movement of air, is the thing to keep in mind. Hope this helps.
From the highest mountain ranges to the deepest parts of the ocean, within this section we are talking about the sciences related to planet Earth and all of the jobs that are involved which could shape your future career. From the earth’s core to its crust, you could be looking at the shape of the earth, the glaciers and ice caps, the oceans and seas that cover much of the earth’s surface, or examining the soil of different areas or countries. There are so many careers involved here from environmental journalists to soil scientists to climate researchers. As our world and climate changes we are only going to be creating more jobs in this area so come on in and get your hands dirty! Have a read through some of the questions and answers below that we have received for the theme of Earth Science and see where you might fit in.
Click on the characters next to each answer to find out more about the jobs that our scientists do when not answering your questions!
What do earth scientists do?
Aakta Patel - 10 October 2011 - 3 answers - id: 1100
Answered by: Geotechnical Engineer
25 October 2011 20:27
Hi Aakta,
Brilliant question and something I get asked a lot. There are lots of places where earth sciences are used in work and we appear in a lot of jobs you wouldn't expect. Along with the pure earth sciences careers that are mentioned above, the subject splits out into other industries. For example I am a geotechnical engineer which links geology (study of the earth and it's materials) and engineering. I specifically work on mine-based projects. I use my knowledge of the rocks and their properties to design mines above the ground and below it and also help to fix problems when they go wrong e.g. when slopes collapse. I'm sure that you can probably find some kind of earth scientist involved in all industries whether it be in a very minor role or as the key link between nature and man-made constructions.
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
12 October 2011 13:17
Hi Aakta! Earth Scientists do a whole range of things. It would take too much time to explain all, but I can give you a few examples. In general, we study the history of the Earth, as well as trying to undertand the changes that are constantly happening on the planet. There are many disciplines within Earth Science, some people focus on understanding how volcanoes work - volcanologists. Others try to understand earthquakes and faults - seismologists and structural geologists. People study fossils and dinosaurs to understand how the Earth was many millions of years ago - Palaeontologists. People like me want to know how the Earth's magnetic field works, both at present, but also, in the distance past, and we are known as Geomagnetists. Earth Science also has many industrial applications, the most famous is of course, the hunt for fossil fuels: natural gas, crude oil and coal. Many disciplines are involved in the study of fossil fuels, from seismologists, geophysicists, to sedimentologists, stratigraphers and palaeontologists, geomagnetists, etc... Earth Science is also used for cleaning up contamination caused in the ground by manmade processes - fueling up your car at petrol stations, producing paint, amongst many others. The list really is endless!!!!!
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 10:57
Within Industry, Earth Science is more "applied" to company activities.
So for example, I work for the Government, and I am interested in how activities and equipment impact on the environment and trying to mitigate those affects by applying environmental processes and understanding the delicacy to avoid damaging it.
To get an idea of the vast range of jobs within the field of Earth Science check out: http://www.earthworks-jobs.com/index.shtml
Will we ever be able to stop earthquakes?
Dean - 08 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1098
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
12 October 2011 13:35
Hi Dean! In short, no, we will never be able to stop an earthquake, in the same way we will never be able to stop a volcanic eruption. The forces involved in producing such phenomenon are too powerful for us to be able to interfere. Look at the answers given to some of the other earthquake themed questions as they explain how earthquakes come about. It would be unrealistic for humans to think that we will be able to stop plate tectonics...
Will we be able to predict earthquakes in the future?
(null) - 03 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1175
Answered by: Geotechnical Engineer
25 October 2011 20:35
Good question, and one that has been asked for a very long time. The simple answer at the moment is no. Seismologists (people who study earthquakes) are getting better and better at figuring out where the next earthquakes are likely to happen based on observations made 24/7 around the world but they cannot locate, date and time earthquakes precisely. As technologies are developing and our understanding of the Earth is also growing and expanding, we are getting closer and closer to the ultimate goal of predicting earthquakes. Will we ever be able to do it? In order to predict it we need to identify a pattern. Once this pattern is known, predictions can be made but at the moment, we don't have enough data to identify a pattern which lets us predict earthquakes. This is definately something to keep your eye on as our technology and understanding develops, maybe we will be able to predict with some accuracy, the location and time of earthquakes.
Why does there seem to have been a lot of earthquakes in recent years?
Unknown - 04 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1080
Answered by: Professor of Earth Sciences
06 October 2011 12:27
During the past few years there have been some very large and very destructive earthquakes, most notably in China, Indonesia, Japan, Haiti, New Zealand and Chile. With quick access to information on the internet, and rapid global communications, we are now quickly aware of each new event. But if we look at the evidence of past large earthquakes, it is not clear that there are any more quakes now than in the past. There seem to have been a lot of events recently, simply because we have been more ready to notice them - and, unfortunately, because some of them have been so devastating.
The United States Geological Survey has a nice collection of pages on earthquake statistics: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqarchives/year/eqstats.php
Why does an earthquake cause a tsunami?
Unknown - 04 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1111
Answered by: Electronic engineer
14 October 2011 13:49
Earthquakes occur when the Earth's plates expand or compress or ride over the top of one other. This causes the sea on top of the plates to be displaced causing gigantic waves. Sometimes the earthquakes cause underwater avalanches of the sea bed which in turn causes a great increase in the number of waves. It’s a bit like tilting a washing up bowl of cold water as the motion/displacement causes waves.
Why do England experience minor earthquakes if it does not settle on a faultline on the tectonic plates?
AbiCook - 06 October 2011 - 2 answers - id: 1107
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 11:21
This is a really useful source for Earthquakes in the UK - http://www.quakes.bgs.ac.uk/hazard/Hazard_UK.htm.
Possible explanations attributed to earthquakes in specific areas are:
-Those confined to around the North Sea are probably due to a “thinner crust” and the large concentration of faults in the area. -Those quakes around the Midlands Microcraton, which is an ancient, Precambrian (older than 590 million years) feature, are attributed to the softer rocks around the hard rock feature being (easily) disturbed. -There can also be “earth tremors” from collapsed old mining shafts or disturbances from other man-made features too. -There is also some debate about the effect from crustal rebound due to the last Ice Age and the crust “bouncing back”. -There are many minor fault lines all over the country and various stresses and strains from the plate will build up and can result in small earthquakes.
In summary, each UK earthquake will be down to the local conditions and can have a different cause!
Answered by: Electronic engineer
13 October 2011 17:05
The UK sits in the middle of the Eurasian tectonic plate. The greatest earthquakes happen at the joints between tectonic plates, but when plates move apart or crush together energy is released. This energy travels like a wave along the plate, so the UK will still experience small earthquakes. Imagine throwing a stone into a still lake - there will be a big splash where the stone lands (the plate boundary,energy released), then a wave travels outwards some distance from the impact site, the wave represents energy moving through the water (the plate).
Why can't we predict earthquakes well in advance?
Unknown - 03 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1071
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
04 October 2011 22:28
We cannot predict earthquakes well in advance because they do not produce a signal that we can detect. We have a good understanding of where earthquakes are likely to occur, from historical information and because we understand how plate tectonics work. However, predicting when they will occur, is not possible. Often a large earthquake is preceded by a number of smaller earthquakes, but these only occur shortly before the large event and do not allow for enough time to alert the local population.
Where do the most earthquakes occur?
Unknown - 05 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1093
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
06 October 2011 21:18
Earthquakes occur all the time all over the world, both along plate edges and along faults. The earth's crust (the outer layer of the planet) is made up of several pieces, called plates. The plates under the oceans are called oceanic plates and the rest are continental plates. The plates are moved around by the motion of a deeper part of the earth (the mantle) that lies underneath the crust. These plates are always bumping into each other, pulling away from each other, or past each other. The plates usually move at about the same speed that your fingernails grow. Earthquakes usually occur where two plates are running into each other or sliding past each other. Faults are cracks in the earth where sections of a plate (or two plates) are moving in different directions. Faults are caused by all that bumping and sliding the plates do. They are more common near the edges of the plates.
What reflects the severity of earthquakes?
Unknown - 26 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1188
Answered by: Electronic engineer
01 November 2011 14:42
The magnitude of earthquakes is measured on a seismogram using the Richter scale invented by Charles F Richter in 1934. It is the largest amplitude of the seismic wave recorded for the earthquake. Note: Richter magnitudes are logarithmic scale (base 10) so for each whole number, the amplitude of the ground motion is 10 times i.e. 5 is 10 times the size of 4 on the Richter scale. http://www.bgs.ac.uk/discoveringGeology/hazards/earthquakes/HowWeMeasureThem.html
What is the most powerful earthquake ever recorded?
Unknown - 11 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1101
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
12 October 2011 13:29
The largest earthquake recorded was a magnitude 9.5 on the richter scale, at Valdivia, Chile in 1960. The third largest is the Boxing day (2004) off the coast of Sumatra and that registered 9.1 on the richter scale. There is some bias towards more recent events, as we have a much wider network of seismometers. It is possible that prior to the development of seismometers there were even larger events, but they have simply not been measured.
What does the scale in which earthquakes are measured actually mean?
pinkcadillac - 05 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1082
Answered by: Professor of Earth Sciences
06 October 2011 12:48
Earthquake sizes are usually reported using the Richter magnitude scale. This scale was originally invented by Charles Richter so that different earthquakes could be compared; and he based this scale on the amount of shaking (the size of the ground waves) recorded by a seismometer at a particular distance from the earthquake centre. Today, scientists use several different ways to measure 'magnitude'. All of these estimate the amount of energy released in the earthquake, and since the amounts of energy release can be so large, the magnitude scales are logarithmic: so a magnitude 8 earthquake releases about 32 times more energy than a magnitude 8 quake.
There is a lot more on this on the US Geological Survey pages: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?termID=118
What causes an earthquake and can it be predicted?
Unknown - 04 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1187
Answered by: Electronic engineer
01 November 2011 14:52
Earthquakes are when there is a sudden release of strain energy in the Earth's crust resulting in waves of shaking that humans can feel & can cause damage to buildings if powerful enough. As for predicting earthquakes there is currently no known way to predict them. There is some useful information on this page: http://earthquakes.bgs.ac.uk/education/faqs/faq_index.html
Is there a way to predict an earthquake or do they occur without any pre-warning?
Tina Beckett - 03 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1223
Answered by: Soil Scientist
13 November 2011 13:30
Hi Tina. At the moment there is no reliable way to predict an earthquake, because we have no way of measuring the buildup of pressure beneath the ground. We can look at where earthquakes are likely to occur, on major faults between the continents (e.g. the San Andreas fault, California) and see how long it was since the last earthquake, compare this with the rate of movement on the fault and the frequency of earthquakes there over history, and that way estimate roughly when we might expect the next one - but it is all guesswork.
Some scientists think that there are geochemical and other environmental changes that can occur before an earthquake, but no good evidence has been found to turn these into reliable predictors. The problem is that every earthquake occurs in a different place, with different geology, so the precursor signs - if they do occur - will always be slightly different.
How likely is an earthquake in Britain?
Jenny jones - 14 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1126
Answered by: Electronic engineer
19 October 2011 14:54
Very likely! Minor earthquakes happen quite a lot in the UK in fact according to the British Geological Surveys web site there was one today at 02:32 in Tuxford, Nottinghamshire, it was of a fairly low magnitude of 1.6 on the Richter Scale. The last significant earthquake was at 00:56:47.8 on 27/02/2008 in Market Rasen, Lincolnshire and measured a mighty 5.2 on the Richter scale. These significant earthquakes have occurred approximately every 1-2 years over the last 40 years.
How does an earthquake happen and why?
Clare - 12 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1102
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
13 October 2011 10:37
Hi Clare! Here is the link to a website that has an easy to understand explanation to why earthquakes happen. It also has a little experiment which you can do to help you understand them too. http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/why.html
How do earthquakes happen?
Joey - 30 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1224
Answered by: Soil Scientist
13 November 2011 13:25
The solid surface of the Earth is always moving, because, underneath, the rocks are so hot that they flow about like water boiling in a pan (except much much more slowly). The hot moving rocks beneath drag the cold, solid surface rocks with them. However, because the surface is solid it doesn't move easily - try pushing two bricks together! So, over time, the pressure builds up more and more, until it is greater than the strength of the rocks can bear. When this happens, the rocks suddenly break and 'snap' past each other to release the pressure (imagine pressing the bricks together so hard that they crack, or suddenly slip past each other). This sudden movement shudders right through the Earth's surface away from the point where the break happened, and we feel it on the ground as the shaking of an earthquake.
Do you think we will ever be able to accurately predict earthquakes?
Unknown - 04 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1081
Answered by: Professor of Earth Sciences
06 October 2011 12:40
A short answer would be no! Earthquake scientists use the word 'prediction' to mean that we can say when, where and how large an event will be. To be useful, a prediction must be able to specify the location and timing very precisely - otherwise it is nothing more than a statement of the obvious. ("There will be an earthquake somewhere on Earth in the next hour..." is not a prediction!). In some rare cases, we might be lucky to recognise a pattern of behaviour leading up to an event which then allows a prediction, but this is going to be the exception and not the rule. In many ways, movements on faults (and earthquakes) are as predictable as the snapping of an elastic band: if you have a hundred elastic bands and you stretch them one by one, they will all eventually snap. But they won't all snap after the same amount of stretching. So, geologists can give you a probability that a particular fault might break at a certain point, based on their measurements of previous breaks - and these probabilities, and how well we know them, will vary from fault to fault, and from place to place. In the future, we will get a lot better at estimating these probabilities - but we will still not be able to predict precisely when the next earthquake will happen in a particular place.
Can we prevent disasters such as earthquakes?
Unknown - 14 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1127
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
19 October 2011 17:26
It is unlikely that we will be able to prevent earthquakes, but it is likely that in some instances (by no means all) we might be able to minimise the damage caused by an earthquake.
We can never stop an earthquake from happening (or that is my opinion at least). The forces driving earthquakes are so large, it is very unlikely we'll be able stop one. However, technology in a whole load of areas is ever improving, which would mean the damage caused by them might be significantly minimised. In the future, we hope to be able to predict earthquakes better and give people much more forewarning of the likelihood of a large event. We also know (and are discovering more and more) areas that are more susceptible to earthquakes and we can prepare those people living there. Better building infrastructure and better building planning can minimise the damage. Training people to know what to do in the event of an earthquake is also hugely important. I know San Francisco (and probably large parts of California) send all their school teachers on courses that tell them what to do in the event of an earthquake at school, in order to help them & their school survive an earthquake.
I don't think we can prevent disasters, but we can, in some instances, reduce the damage they cause by understanding them better. That is why research into them is so important!
Are the buildings in earthquake areas earthquake proof?
Lexy - 15 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1129
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 11:37
Many countries have earthquake proof building designs and standards. They are commonly mandated for new buildings in a lot of developed countries that experience a large volume and/or high magnitude quakes (such as Japan or the US). However, in poorer areas, standards are not imposed and this is one of the many reasons the impacts from earthquakes can be so devastating in these areas. Specifically, in Europe, we have EuroCode 8, which applies to all new builds in seismic regions.
There is also evidence that from Ancient times seismic design features have been incorporated into building constructions. There is evidence that materials and structural design were considered by Architects prior to construction, especially in the Med. There is currently debate about certain features in Pompeii and Ercolano, the famous towns destroyed by the AD79 eruption of Vesuvio, being specifically designed to withstand the frequent earthquakes experienced there.
Why don't we use the heat of the earths core to generate electricity more?
Unknown - 01 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 660
Answered by: Soil Scientist
01 June 2011 21:45
Hello. In many places on the world, people are already using the Earth's heat - or geothermal energy - to generate electricity and even more directly to provide heating. However, the reason it's not more widely used is a question of geography - where you are on the globe. Only places like Iceland and New Zealand, where the Earth's crust is relatively thin and volcanoes bring hot magma close to the surface, have enough heat energy to produce power on a really large scale. Across most of our land area, the thick continental crust means that to get at the high temperatures needed for electricity generation requires very very deep drilling - it is just not practical.
However, that's not to say that using geothermal energy is impossible in these areas. The temperature underground increases by about 25 degC with every kilometre depth, according to the International Geothermal Association (http://www.geothermal-energy.org/314,what_is_geothermal_energy.html), even far away from tectonically active (volcanic) regions. We can make use of this heat gradient for heating (and cooling, when the surface temperature is very high in summer), but it is only where the gradient is very steep, with 100 degC temperatures relatively near the surface, that boiling groundwater can be used to drive electricity turbines.
The best feature of geothermal energy, however used, is its reliability. Unlike wind, wave or even solar, the flux of energy out of the ground remains pretty constant day in, day out, year in year out - it doesn't vary with the seasons or weather. However, compared to these it is a very small heat flow - about 1/10,000 of the energy provided by the sun to every square metre of the Earth's surface. But if we *could* harness all that geothermal energy, then our immediate energy problems would be pretty much solved - global geothermal flow rates are more than twice the rate of human energy consumption from all primary sources. See Wikipedia for more facts and figures - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_gradient.
Why can't we use the sea current to make energy?
Unknown - 07 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1096
Answered by: Project Manager, Energy Technologies Institute
11 October 2011 09:28
Hello there. There are a number of ways in which the power of the sea and tides can be harnessed to provide us with electrical energy. These can include under-sea turbines (think wind turbines, but under the surface of the sea), tidal barrages (similar to a dam across an estuary such as the Humber, Solway or Severn estuaries) and wave generators. For the last category, there are a number of different technologies, such as the "sea-snake" like Pelamis. This is a long, articulated device which "rides" the waves: each time the waves pass, the articulated joints move and create power in hydraulic rams inside the device: this power can then be translated into electrical power.
There are good points and bad points to each different way of harnessing wave power. Tidal barrages may prevent fishing or leisure boats from passing down the estuary, or impact on wildlife. Some are more or less good (efficient) at converting wave power into electricity. Another key factor is that the electricity needs to be brought back to land using under-sea cables. If we were to install lots of wave-power devices, then there would need to be electrical sub-stations built on the coast to "gather" all the electricity coming in from the sea and then feed into large overhead power lines. You can find out more at: http://www.therenewableenergycentre.co.uk/wave-and-tidal-power/
Why can't more to be done to harness wave power as a form of renewable energy?
Unknown - 15 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1149
Answered by: Electronic engineer
21 October 2011 13:13
Economics!
Waves do contain vast quantities of cyclic power but in order to build adequate systems that can stand the constant battering & harsh salt water environment for 20 years or more out at sea, a lot of time and money is required (it can also be very dangerous).
Tidal power usually works out to be a more cost effective source of renewable energy. Systems such as SeaGen 1st installed at Strangford Narrows, Northern Ireland generates 1.2MW for 18-20 hours a day & unlike wind turbines the tides are very predictable.
What causes thunder?
Nik - 31 May 2011 - 2 answers - id: 658
Answered by: Postdoctoral researcher in Biochemistry
31 May 2011 12:33
The sudden increase in pressure and temperature from lightning produces rapid expansion of the air around. This creates a sonic shock wave which produces the sound of thunder.
Answered by: Research Engineer, Lightning & Electrostatics
01 August 2011 09:20
A lightning bolt is very hot - about 30,000 degrees C - that's hotter than the surface of the sun! The heat from this makes the air expand and eventually explode creating a shock wave which propogates as sound. Just because it is sound doesn't mean it's harmless though - shock waves produced from nuclear explosions can cause a lot of damage and so can thunder claps if they are very close to a building or person for example.
Will we ever see a completely renewable fuel source?
Unknown - 05 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1128
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 11:47
Renewable energy is in the form of geothermal/sunlight, wave/tidal and wind. They arent "fuels" but are a renewable way to generate energy.
Have a look at the questions under the 'Energy' header in this theme that can answer more direct questions.
What are the negative effects of petrol on the environment?
Daisy - 15 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1130
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 11:56
When petrol escapes from petrol stations for example, volatile compounds can evaporate and enter the atmosphere. These can be carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides and ozone depleters and can affect the atmosphere through similar processes to global warming and ozone damage.
Petrol can also contaminate the soil and this can obviously damage plants and animals, and on a large scale water supplies.
Petrol has lots of nasties in, and can potentially kill wildlife on a large scale, in a similar way to oil spills that are on the news.
Why do some experts still believe that global warming does not exist?
Unknown - 22 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1157
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
24 October 2011 10:49
There are many reasons why some scientists don’t believe in Global Warming . . . - Some scientists are not as independent and are motivated by politics. As some countries would suffer economically by changing to mitigate their global impact it is chosen to be rather cynical about the evidence. - There have been issues with evidence and presentation of facts. Such as the recent UEA controversy regarding emails. - Some scientists believe that the climate is changing but that human activity has not been a cause. This is down to the variations of global climate over millennia. - Some scientists view natural phenomena as being more of an issue than what humans can do; such as volcanic eruptions.
And there are many more!
What is the wider impact of global warming?
Unknown - 17 June 2011 - 2 answers - id: 810
Answered by: Development Manager
21 June 2011 05:56
I think there are many possibilities as to what may happen with climate change. There is a predicted 4degC change in temperature by the end of the century (I think). This will have a dramatic effect on the ice caps, and cause far more melt water to enter the oceans. This will cause the sea level to rise, causing far more flooding than we have experienced to date, with places like Bangaldesh suffering far more than it already does. In addition, the cold waters from the Arctic may push the Gulf Stream further south. This will make the UK much colder, and the waters will be even colder than they are already! We will experience much colder winters and summers. London - which has the Thames Barrier to protect it from flooding has been used far more than anticipated, and it is believed it will not be able to protect London in the future - and so there is already talk of a much larger barrier to be built between Kent and Essex. The change in the water temperatures around our coast will affect the sealife we find. The changes in air temperatures will impact the plants we can grow, and the animals that can survive in our climate. I believe I read a while ago that there are already signs of population changes in animals in Africa (I think) as a result of climate change, and this will increase as climate change continues. There is also talk of changes to the intensity of solar flares, which will impact our weather. The impact of climate change is so massive that it is difficult to model accurately, as there are so many variables. And whilst nature is very good at trying to balance the damage man does, we must look at all ways of reducing our consumption of the environment, and give nature a chance to rectify the damage we do!
Answered by: Geology/Geophysics PhD student
21 July 2011 16:13
There are many issues surrounding climate change, so many in fact, that the effects are very hard to model. One of the main concerns is about the effects on sea levels, but the issue is much more complex than the ice caps melting and increasing the volume of water in the oceans. Isostacy is a term used in geology to explain how, say tectonic plates, "float" at a given elevation which depends on their thickness and density. Therefore, if a thick ice sheet is present over a land mass, it will force the land mass to be depressed by the huge weight of the ice sheet. This effect was felt significantly during the last glacial period on Earth, and northern Europe (including the UK), Siberia, Canada, U.S.A, Patagonia and Antartica were particularly affected. When the last ice sheets melted, the melted ice water returned to the oceans, thus sea level in the ocean increased. At the same time the land masses the ice was centred over, started to rise, in a process known as isostatic rebound. Northern parts of the UK are still rising as a result of the last deglaciation. Isostacy means that depending upon the location, the rise in sea level at a certain site may be more than that at another site. So, as a result of current glacial melting, we may find that certain areas suffer a lot from sea level rise, whilst others suffer from sea level fall. Understanding glacial isostacy is important in monitoring the effects of global warming.
What is the current situation regarding the ozone layer?
Sammie - 03 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1132
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 12:46
Key information on what the Ozone Layer is can be found using this website - http://www.oar.noaa.gov/climate/t_ozonelayer.html
In summary: Ozone is a naturally occurring gas within the atmosphere; the Ozone Layer plays a vital role in shielding humans (and other life) from harmful UV light from the Sun. Over the last few decades human activity produced chemicals, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which contributed to the depletion of ozone. In 1987, the Montreal Protocol was established with the International Community banning many of the harmful chemicals. As a result, it is estimated that there was a 95% reduction in the consumption of ozone depleting substances and that the ‘hole’ started to fix. It is in no way “fixed” but well on the way to recovery.
Is global warming just returning the Earth back to it's original state/temperature?
Lucy - 20 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1156
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
24 October 2011 10:53
Global climate change refers to the change in climate of the Earth… Throughout history there have been different climatic conditions such as the warmer Carboniferous period and the cooler Pleistocene era.
If global warming means the globe is warming then why are UK winters getting colder?
Richard - 24 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1189
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
01 November 2011 13:56
UK winters aren't getting colder - although the last couple were an exception! If you look at the graph at http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/news/releases/archive/2011/cold-dec (enlarge it to see better) you can see that winters have been, generally, getting warmer since the 1980s. Of course, some years are always colder that others - that's the difference between 'weather' (what you get on one particular occasion) and 'climate' (what you expect i.e. what you consider to be normal).
Whether we get a warmer or colder winter depends on the large scale patterns of weather around the globe - for example whether there is an el nino or la nino event going on, and what the pressure difference is between Iceland and the Azores - this effects the position of the jet stream and where the weather systems go.
In general, British winters are expected to get warmer, wetter and stormier in the future.
How are polar bears affected by climate change?
Unknown - 12 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1133
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 12:56
The effect on polar bears is really quite sad! This is a good website to use - http://www.polarbearsinternational.org/polar-bears/bear-essentials-polar-style/human-interaction/climate-change (you can also do online adoptions and other things to support the cause).
To summarise, increased temperatures is melting sea ice (the whole global warming debate is another issue!) and it’s this change that affects not only the habitat for the bears but also their prey stocks! Seals, for instance, need the sea ice to reproduce, as this sea ice melts, the seals cannot reproduce. This is reducing the numbers of food available for the bears, especially the cubs. Polar bears also require sea ice for activities such as mating and rearing young, so when this melts it also changes and alters these activities. You can see how interrelated everything is! There have also been incidents of polar bears drowning; they can only swim so far!
However, the answer is not clear cut (as with most environmental issues). In some areas there have been noted declines in population, whereas in other areas, numbers have remained but distribution has altered.
From various studies it is said that the Earth is still warming up from the last ice age. Is this true or is global warming a real thing?
Tina Beckett - 31 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1231
Answered by: Soil Scientist
15 November 2011 14:13
Hi Tina. Firstly, yes, we are likely in a natural warm 'interglacial' period between the last Ice Age and another future one, assuming that the pattern of Ice Ages that we have seen in the last million years or so continues. In the sense that the Earth's climate has varied continuously and by large amounts over geological time, then climate change is very real. However, 'man-made' climate change is also very real too. Since the industrial revolution, when we started burning coal and oil in large quantities, the amount of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere has shot up. Our knowledge of atmospheric physics tells us that this should cause increased temperatures by trapping more of the sun's heat near the surface. We are now seeing, in measurements from all over the world, signs of that increase, over and above what we might expect from 'natural' variations in temperature.
Does global warming really exist?
PeteWilkes - 25 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1190
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
01 November 2011 14:04
Yes ... but please dont call it 'global warming' - 'climate change' is a much more accurate term, as there is so much more going on than warming (in fact, a few, localised places are cooling). But yes, people are adding greenhouse gases to the atmosphere and the net effect on the whole climate system is to cause the climate to change.
Are periglacial formations likely to be adversely affected by global warming?
Gman - 03 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1227
Answered by: Soil Scientist
14 November 2011 21:13
The short answer is yes, assuming you mean periglacial regions in general and don't have a specific feature (e.g. pingos) in mind. The region of land in the Arctic known where permafrost exists is very sensitive to a warming climate. Most worryingly, permafrost locks up a large amount of carbon and methane in the ground. When/if it melts, this may be released into the atmosphere, greatly increasing the levels of greenhouse gases and accelerating climate change, which will melt greater amounts of permafrost, releasing more gases... - a process known as positive feedback. Not good.
Why do you get variations in gravity in different regions of the planet?
Unknown - 19 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1173
Answered by: Electronic engineer
24 October 2011 19:49
If the Earth was a perfect sphere with perfect uniform density, then the gravitational pull would always be the same at any point on the Earth. In reality it is far from this due to differing types of geology causing density variations, and also due to the fact that the gravity on the Earth decreases the closer to the centre it is measured, so gravity on a high mountain top would be greater than say in a very deep mine/cave.
How does gravity work?
PeteWilkes - 25 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1232
Answered by: Soil Scientist
15 November 2011 14:30
Hi Pete. Gravity is a property of bodies which have mass (planets, stars, black holes; mountains; sheep; you, me). The larger the mass in a body, the stronger its gravity. Gravity causes bodies to exert an attractive force on other bodies nearby (only nearby, since the gravity force decreases with distance from the centre of mass of each body). You can very roughly think of gravity by imagining a huge, flat sheet stretched very tight. If you drop an apple on this sheet, it will make a dent in it. The dent won't be very deep or very wide, but if you dropped, say, a pea near to the apple, the pea would roll down the dent until it reached the apple. The apple's gravity, in other words, has acted on the pea to accelerate it towards the apple until it hit. Now imagine leaving the apple-and-pea on the sheet, and then carefully placing a cannonball a few metres away. The cannonball has a lot more mass than the apple, and creates a big dent. As long as the cannonball is not too far away, the apple-and-pea will start slowly moving towards it, then faster and faster until finally the pea, apple and cannonball are all stuck together in the middle of the cannonball's 'gravity well'. Hope this helps visualise what gravity is basically about.
One last thing - imagine the apple is rolling steadily along the flat sheet in a straight line when the cannonball is set down just off to the side of its direction of travel. What will happen? The apple won't just head straight for the cannonball (unless the ball is super heavy) - it will curve round the edge of the dent caused by the cannonball, and unless it is travelling fast enough to 'escape', it will end up circling round and round the cannonball, slowly settling into a regular circular or oval path. You've just thought of the orbit of a comet, around the Sun, or a spaceship around the Earth - it is all controlled by gravity.
Does gravity pull us from below or push us from above?
Unknown - 05 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1176
Answered by: Geotechnical Engineer
25 October 2011 20:49
Good question and one which can be solved by starting dropping an apple. Isaac Newton was the guy who discovered gravity in as much as he developed an equation describing the force he observed when an apple fell on his head while he was sat under a tree. After Newton's theory on gravity, Albert Einstein suggested that gravity was not a force (as described by Newton) but a distortion in space time. Whilst this sounds a bit too much like Star Trek, Einstein said that it was a curve in space time that caused two objects travelling in the same direction at the same time to collide where as Newton described a force (gravity) that pulled the two together. Regardless of who says what, gravity is a force that pulls not pushes us and is formed as a result of the Earths rotation around it's axis. It sticks you to the ground and gives every object mass. The best way to think of it for me... when you walk, what aches? Your feet or your shoulders? Surely if it was something pushing down on you, your shoulders, neck and head would be sore. At the moment, all a long walk does is make your feet ache.
How do scientists predict how long hurricanes will last for?
RachyRoo - 04 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1191
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
01 November 2011 14:13
In general, hurricanes last until they run out of energy and this is commonly when they cross from being over the ocean to being over land. It could also happen if they move over a colder bit of water. Both would reduce the amount of evaporation going on, and its evaporation which is ultimately the source of the energy that a hurricane needs to keep going. Scientists predict where a hurricane is going to go, and therefore how long it's going to last for, using very big computer models. They take into account all that we know about the atmosphere (the pressure patterns, the wind speeds and directions, the temperature of the air at different levels, etc.) and then solve hundreds, if not thousands, of equations. The better the data about the state of the atmosphere (and oceans) near the hurricane, the better the forecast.
Why does there seem to have been more natural disasters in the past fews years than ever before? Are there actually more or is technology allowing them to be detected and reported more?
Unknown - 09 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1099
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
12 October 2011 13:42
You've answered your own question! :)! There is in fact far more (and better) technology in the modern world than there has been in the past and this is allowing us to detect and report natural distasters in greater numbers all across the globe. I think in future, as the equipment used for the study and detection of natural hazards becomes even better, we will record even more natural disasters. However, there is nothing that beats being in the right place (or the wrong one, depending on your view) at the right time. See this BBC video on a cliff collapse in Cornwall just two weeks ago. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-15251292
Why do hurricanes form over seas?
PeteWilkes - 25 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1193
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
01 November 2011 14:08
Because they need a big source of warm water - this water evaporates into the rising (convecting) air. As the moist air rises, expands and cools, the water starts condensing. As water condenses, it releases energy (heat) into the air and this is the energy source for the hurricane that keeps it moving. As soon as the hurricane moves over land, it is cut off from its energy source and fizzles out fairly quickly.
Why are we seeing more natural disasters these days?
Naomi - 10 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1103
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
12 October 2011 13:24
Hi Naomi! I don't think it is strictly true that we are seeing more natural disasters these days. I think what is happening is that they are more widley reported. We live in an era where information and reporting of it, is key to society. Large proportions of the global population has access to smartphones which allow them to record an event and post it on the web almost immediately. In the past we have had to rely on eyewitness accounts of natural disasters, recorded in some written form. These accounts are easily lost, destroyed or simply stored in someones private collection and not accessible to the wider public. People are now more aware of natural disasters and know that through the sharing of experiences we are more likely to learn about them.
Where do hurricanes come from?
Gunnie - 14 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1192
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
01 November 2011 14:00
In general, where the temperature of the surface of the ocean is nice and warm (so there is lots of evaporation going on ... this evaporated water later condenses in the hurricane clouds, releasing the energy that drives the hurricane on) and where the effect of the rotation of the Earth is big enough to cause the rising air to start spinning. In practice, this usually means in the Tropics, over the Oceans but not too close to the Equator. Exactly where they form depends on the details of the weather - how the winds are blowing etc.
What is the worst natural disaster?
Rosie - 18 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1136
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 13:35
Not to be difficult but this depends on what you are regarding as your biggest loss! Generally, there are 3 categories; economic loss (including short and long term impacts to economy and society), deaths and injury, and then the more scientific element; the magnitude of the event (the amount of energy released) …
What is the difference between a typhoon, a tornado and a whirlwind?
Unknown - 15 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1135
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 13:13
Hurricanes and typhoons are essentially the same thing; they are also called cyclones. Essentially, the name is dependant on which part of the world they are in. All terms mean tropical cyclone, but generally, the term Typhoon is used by the Japanese, Hurricane by the Americans and Cyclones by countries around the Indian Ocean.
The textbook definition for a tropical cyclone is “a system of thunderstorms that shows a cyclonic rotation around a central core or eye. A tropical cyclone is a generic term for a storm with an organized system of thunderstorms that are not based on a frontal system.”
Whirlwinds, or more commonly known as tornadoes, are the vortex of wind (rotating column of air), commonly seen in disaster movies!
What causes a tsunami?
Unknown - 04 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1076
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
04 October 2011 21:23
Tsunamis are caused by a number of phenomenons. Generally they are caused by earthquakes, less commonly by submarine landslides, infrequently by submarine volcanic eruptions and very rarely by a large meteorite impact in the ocean. They are a result of the displacement of very large volumes of water, so can occur in oceans but also in large lakes. The most common scenario is a tsunami resulting from an earthquake, as this causes the sea floor to deform in a very short space of time and causes the overlying water to be displaced. A large earthquake has to occur in order to cause the movement required, so they are often associated with earthquakes that result from the movement of plate boundaries.
Is there a way to stop a tsunami?
Unknown - 18 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1131
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 13:30
In short, no!
Out at sea, tsunamis are hardly noticeable; it is to coastal communities that they are a threat. As tsunamis approach the shoreline, the gradient of the sea bed is inclined; this slows the base of the tsunami down but the tops are still moving fast. This makes them grow in energy and height (in brief). As they impact with the shore, any structures around will reduce the speed and provide physical barriers to SOME EXTENT, however, they can still come far inland before that happens!
General advice is to move to high ground and avoid the tsunami. But there are instances where mitigation strategies have been attempted; Afforestation, offshore blockers have been trialled. Success is debatable. Notable examples have been Japan and other Pacific-based countries.
How do scientists determine where fault lines are and how can they predict how active they will be?
Unknown - 23 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1164
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
24 October 2011 12:55
There are a number of ways in which we can determine where fault lines are. The reality is that often they are found by chance!
Large scale faults - often expressed on the surface and air photographs taken from a plane or satellite can show, clearly, where a fault is. Have a look at this image of the St. Andreas Fault in California http://scrippsnews.ucsd.edu/Releases/?releaseID=736.
Seismic modelling - where a number of seismometers are placed on the ground to see the arrivals of earthquake events. The data is then modelled and can reveal the location of a new fault. Often faults have no expression on the Earth's surface and this is the only way we can see that they exist. It is a technique that allows us to "see" below the Earth. The boundaries of tectonic plates are associated with faults and we look in areas of known activity for more faults.
What determines ocean currents?
Unknown - 29 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1204
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
03 November 2011 16:06
A combination of temperature gradients, salinity gradients (saltier water sinks), where the continents are and which way the wind predominantly blows over the ocean surface.
How much water is there in the Earth's oceans?
Unknown - 03 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1072
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
04 October 2011 22:33
The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimate that there is 1,386,000,000 cubic kilometers (332,519,000 cubic miles) of water on the Earth, of which 97% is found in the Earth's oceans.
Do all of the salt seas of the Earth have the same levels of salt?
Unknown - 05 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1134
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 13:41
No. Salinity (salt content) is dependant on a number of factors, one being humidity.
Will there ever be another ice age?
Lauren Brown - 10 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1165
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
24 October 2011 12:44
Hi Lauren! A short answer to your question is YES! We are technically, in the middle of an ice age, right now. An ice age or, more precisely, glacial age, is a generic geological period of long-term reduction in the temperature of the Earth's surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental ice sheets, polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers. In particularly long ice ages, there are periods of extreme cold known as glacial periods and also periods that are warmer which are known as interglacials. We are currently in an interglacial. Watch this video by Dr. Iain Steward, where he explains this: http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/earth/water_and_ice/ice_age#p00gbg2j
Why is there always the same amount of water in the world?
Rosie - 19 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1233
Answered by: Soil Scientist
15 November 2011 16:54
Hi Rosie, What an excellent question! You could have asked the same of lots of different substances - in fact, if you break down the familiar substances into elements, then for nearly all of them (except the unstable ones that 'decay' by radioactivity) the total amount on Earth (including the atmosphere) is more or less a constant. This is because the Earth is very nearly a 'closed system' - that means large amounts of matter aren't disappearing off into space, or arriving from space. Since matter can't be created or destroyed, then the total amount on Earth stays the same. Of course things can be transformed from one form to another - so water gets evaporated from the oceans to form water vapour in the atmosphere, then condenses into rain and falls on the land, can be stored in various forms on or under the surface, can be incorporated into rocks, can be subducted down into the interior of the Earth, is released as steam from volcanoes, and so on - but these processes act at pretty steady rates so on average you are right that the total amount present as liquid water stays about the same. That's the simple story - in fact, of course, small amounts of matter do fall to Earth from Space (meteorites, for example) but relative to the total mass of the Earth this addition is negligible. Back in the early formation of the Earth, however, all the water we have now arrived from space, brought by the impact of many thousands of icy comets during the formation of the Solar System.
Why is the sky blue and the grass green?
G1 NGE - 08 July 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1068
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning/ Royal Meteorological Society
29 September 2011 09:38
There is a very good answer with pictures on this website: http://www.sciencemadesimple.com/sky_blue.html
The light we get from the Sun is pretty white - approximately equal amounts of all the colours. Grass is green because the grass absorbs the blue and red/yellow end of the spectrum but reflects the green light - so we see it. Grass wont emit light itself as its much colder than the Sun - the colder an object is, the longer the wavelengths it emits at, so all of the radiation emited by objects on the Earth's surface tends to be infrared.
Why do we have ice ages?
Unknown - 06 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1137
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 14:04
Wow, what a question! In a nutshell (really) …
‘Ice Age’ is a generic term for a geological period of time where there is a long-term reduction in the Earth’s surface and atmospheric temperatures. This causes an expansion of continental and polar ice.
There are many causes! Changes in the atmospheric temperature, changes in sea currents, position of the continents, sun output, and volcanism. There are also natural variations in the earth’s orbit known as the Milankovitch cycles ref: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Milankovitch/milankovitch.php
As you will have no doubt seen in disaster movies too, global warming itself can cause a feedback loop and trigger an ice age too.
Why do geysers occur?
Unknown - 09 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1105
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
13 October 2011 10:53
A geyser is a hot spring that periodically erupts, throwing water into the air. Though that sounds simple, geysers are extremely rare. As of August 2008, the total number of active geysers on earth was approximately 1000. Conditions must be just right for geysers to occur.
Three components must be present for geysers to exist: an abundant supply of water, an intense source of heat, and unique plumbing. Water is common in nature, heat can come from volcanic activity, but the plumbing is critical.
The following is an excerpt from Scott Bryan's 'Geysers of Yellowstone', 3rd edition, copyright 2001. Yellowstone National Park has a large number of geysers. 'The hot water, circulating up from great depth, flows into the plumbing system of a geyser. Because this water is many degrees above the boiling point, some of it turns to steam instead of forming liquid pools. Meanwhile, additional, cooler water is flowing into the geyser from the porous rocks nearer the surface. The two waters mix as the plumbing system fills. Steam bubbles rising from deep within the plumbing system manage to heat the surface water until it also reaches the boiling point. Now the geyser begins to function like a pressure cooker. Soon there is a virtual explosion as the steam expands to over 1,500 times its original, liquid volume. The boiling rapidly becomes violent and water is ejected so rapidly that it is thrown into the air.'
Where do rainbows come from?
Unknown - 10 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 763
Answered by: Postdoctoral researcher in Electrical engineering
13 June 2011 08:19
Hi/
A rainbow is caused by an optical effect known as refraction (this means the bending of light).
The first thing to realise is that the whiteish/yellow light that the sun (or light bulbs) give out is actually made up of light of all the different colours which then add up to give the white look.
The second thing to know is that light moves differently through different objects for this reason when light moves between two different objects it can bend (this is called refraction). A good demonstration of this can be done in your kitchen using a glass of water and a pencil. Firstly you half fill a glass with water and then stand a pencil up in it, if you then look at the water level it looks like the pencil bends as you go from the air to the water.
As for rainbows forming, around a rainstorm there are lots of water droplets in the air so as the light travels through them it will bend in a similar way. As the white light from the sun is really made up of all the colours these will all bend and the amount they bend will depend on the colour allowing the colours to spread out forming a rainbow.
What is the tallest mountain in the world?
Unknown - 18 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1142
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 14:17
See this - http://geology.com/records/highest-mountain-in-the-world.shtml
What is the relationship between the moon and the tide?
Unknown - 04 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1094
Answered by: Development Manager
09 October 2011 17:33
You have asked a good question. Tides are affected by two sources - the sun and the moon. You may have heard of "spring" tides - which don't just happen in the springtime, but whenever the sun and moon are aligned around the earth - either on the same side - or on opposite sides. The gravitational pull can be thought to "pull" the water towards the moon and sun. And so, when the sun and moon are aligned, this gives the highest tides. You always get a symmetrical bulge of water on either side of the earth, and as the earth rotates, this provides effectively two tides a day. When the sun and moon are pulling in different directions (imagine a 2D picture of the earth - and in the previous example, the sun and moon were either on the right of the earth, or one on the left and one on the right), then in the current example, we might have the sun on the right, and the moon "above" - and this way their gravitational forces are not "pulling" together, and we get the smallest tides - or "neap" tides - often referred to as neaps (not to be confused with your vegetables!
What is the most common element on Earth?
RKO - 03 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1074
Answered by: Geologist & Hydrogeologist
04 October 2011 14:24
By weight, iron is the most common element. It is in most rocks, as part of the minerals that make up rocks. The mantle of the earth contains most of the mass, and is made up of semi liquid minerals with a high concentration of iron.
What is the most common element in the Earth's crust?
Unknown - 23 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1181
Answered by: Electronic engineer
28 October 2011 15:04
The most abundant elements in the Earth's crust are Oxygen 46.6% & Silicates 27.7%. For more information check out this website: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/tables/elabund.html
What is the mass number of hydrogen?
Brad - 04 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1178
Answered by: Head of Science, St Pauls School, London
28 October 2011 14:38
The most common form of hydrogen has mass number 1. However there is a small amount (about 1 atom in 6000) of naturally occurring deuterium - a heavy isotope of hydrogen with mass number 2. Tritium, hydrogen with mass number 3, is radioactive and decays into helium-3 so has to be generated in nuclear reactors.
What is the age of the oldest fossil found?
Mel - 18 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1234
Answered by: Soil Scientist
15 November 2011 16:42
Hi Mel. The oldest fossils are of bacteria in rocks that are around 3 billion (thats 3,000 million) years old. Single bacteria are microscopic, but they grew in colonies which created large mushroom-shaped mounds called stromatolites, which are the fossils we can recognise. Modern bacteria create the same forms under the right conditions - look up 'Shark Bay, Australia' on the internet. The oldest fossils of larger creatures, like sponges, are up to 1,000 million years old, but the fossils of recognisable animals (things like horseshoe crabs and molluscs) do not appear in rocks older than about 540 million years. That is still very old though! Fossils of birds and mammals like those we see all about us today did not appear until less than 65 million years ago, and humans did not appear until the last 1 or 2 million years. That is still 500 times longer than human history since the time of Jesus Christ.
What is onion skin weathering?
Unknown - 04 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1077
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
04 October 2011 22:37
This is a geological process that affects rocks in deserts. In the heat of the day, the rock expands, but as temperatures drop at night the rocks cools and contracts. The repetition of this process, weakens the outer layers of the rock and they peel off, much like the layers of an onion.
What is Earth Science?
Unknown - 17 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1141
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 14:12
A good question! In the shortest (but widest terms) it is the study and application of all sciences related to Planet Earth.
What evidence is there that a meteor wiped out the dinosaurs?
fja203 - 04 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1075
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
04 October 2011 22:18
There are two main theories about dinosaur extinction. The first proposes that a large meteorite impact (Chicxulub crater) to the Earth at about 65million years ago, on the Yucatan peninsula of Mexico, resulted in a large amount of dust and debris being thrown up into the atmosphere. This reduced the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth. In addition, the impact could have caused large scale fires, which would further increase the amount of gases in the atmosphere. This would result in plants not getting the energy they require for their survival and would die off. Dinosaurs would therefore not have enough food to survive and also die off. There is a large crater in the Yucatan Peninsula, which is how the theory originally came about. Large amounts of the rare element iridium were found at the site of crater. It is not found in large abundances on the Earth and it’s origin is thought to be extraterrestrial. Since, it has been found all over the World in geological deposits of the same age. Scientist believe that the source of it in these rocks must be the Chicxulub impact. As the timing of the impact is very close to the extinction of dinosaurs, it is thought to be a potential cause for the extinction of dinosaurs. The alternative theory suggests that a large igneous province (a very large scale volcanic eruption), in northern India caused a large volume of volcanic gases to be released into the atmosphere, causing Global Warming and blocking sunlight from the Earth. A final theory, though somewhat less supported, is that Dinosaurs were not able to evolve and adapt to the changes in the Earth over time (evolution of the plants they fed on, for example) and so slowly became extinct. It is likely that no single event caused the extinction of dinosaurs, but that a combination of events led to their demise.
What does earth science actually include? Would mining be within earth science or does it need to be natural?
Unknown - 31 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1228
Answered by: Soil Scientist
14 November 2011 21:31
Absolutely mining is within the Earth Sciences, although it also comprises a large body of specialist engineering too. Its an applied earth science, if you like - like oil prospecting. Check out the wikipedia entry on the Royal School of Mines, now the Earth Sciences department at Imperial College, London.
What causes the magnetic poles to shift and why does this happen?
Gav - 24 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1160
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
24 October 2011 12:28
Hi Gav! In short, we don' know!! There are a number of theories, but there is not enough evidence to prove/disprove any of the proposed ideas. We think that studying the ancient magentic field might be able to tell us more about it. Follow the blog of the lab where I work at, to see how we are doing at answering questions about the Earth's magentic field http://www.geomagnetism.org/ I work on rocks themselves to find out the answers, but other people model the earth's interior to find out what that might be able to tell us. For a very cool animation, see this http://es.ucsc.edu/~glatz/geodynamo.html Finally, the USA geological survey has a really good web page, if you want to know more about the Earth's magnetic field! http://geomag.usgs.gov/faqs.php
What causes plate tectonics?
Aakta Patel - 04 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1092
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
06 October 2011 21:42
Convection Currents in the Mantle cause tectonic plates to move. The mantle of the earth circulates much like water boiling in a pot. Where the mantle is rising, the plates are torn apart (divergent). Where the mantle is sinking, the plates are pulled together and subducted (convergent).
What causes gravity?
Unknown - 03 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1174
Answered by: Electronic engineer
24 October 2011 20:08
At time of writing (24/10/11), mankind has still to find an answer to that question. We understand how it operates, how it effects the earth & the rest of the known universe, but its cause remains unknown. Einstein believed that gravity was a property of space-time geometry & this year the Gravity Probe B satellite confirmed some of Einsteins key predictions mainly the warping of space & time http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-13286241
What are the main things people can do to reduce pollution in their local areas and how do these things help?
Unknown - 06 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1139
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 13:53
I assume you mean ‘pollution’ just in general rather than a particular type (noise, air, light etc). . .
If so, the European Environment Agency has some good, basics - http://www.eea.europa.eu/maps/ozone/whatcanIdo/avoid-ozone-pollution
Basically, if everyone did their “bit”, then it would have a positive global impact.
What are plate tectonics?
Aakta Patel - 19 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1168
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
24 October 2011 12:37
Hi Aakta! We now know that the Earth's outermost layer, the lithosphere, is divided into independently moving plates into which the continents are embedded. The plates "float" on a layer called the athenosphere. Here is a really good page from the BBC, with LOTS of resources, that tells you all about plate tectonics http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/earth/surface_and_interior/plate_tectonics I've copied a small paragraph which summarises plate tectonics really well and should give you a taster of the sort of info you can expect to find in the web page. There are some really good annimations and a great video by Dr. Iain Steward.
On a hot sunny day why is the sky very deeply blue directly above you, but more pale blue at the horizon?
Unknown - 12 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1067
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
29 September 2011 09:38
There is a very good answer with pictures on this website: http://www.sciencemadesimple.com/sky_blue.html
Is there an actual start and end point for rainbows?
anna - 06 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1180
Answered by: Head of Science, St Pauls School, London
28 October 2011 14:34
Yes - the ground! If you see a rainbow from a plane, you can see a full circle. Look out for it - there are many wonderful optical effects other than rainbows, many of which can be seen from planes. Often you will see a rainbow in the clouds as you fly.
Is the sky blue because of the ocean?
Lauren Brown - 03 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1194
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
01 November 2011 14:27
No, the ocean is blue because of the sky! The sky is blue because of the way the light we get from the sun interacts with the molecules in the air - there is a very good explanation with pictures on this website: http://www.sciencemadesimple.com/sky_blue.html
Is it possible to get sunburnt through glass?
Unknown - 08 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1125
Answered by: Planetarium Presenter
19 October 2011 16:03
There are many different types of glass that have chemicals added to give it different properties, e.g. Ultra-violet (UV) reduction, Infra-red protection etc. Ordinary glass allows about 90% of light above a wavelength of around 350nm , but blocks about 90% below 300nm.
It is UV light (~200-400nm) that causes sunburn therefore the chances of becoming sunburnt are significantly reduced. However, infra-red light (heat) is well transmitted by glass, so your skin may redden as a result of the heat through glass.
Some types of glass have chemicals in them to reduce the UV light transmission further; often used in museums to reduce the effects of UV light on delicate artifacts.
Is Britain moving towards mainland Europe or further away into the Atlantic?
Daniel Wright - 08 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1104
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
13 October 2011 10:46
Hi Daniel, The UK sits on the Eurasian Plate. In the centre of the Atlantic Ocean is the Mid-Atlantic ridge which is a divergent plate tectonic boundary that separates the Eurasian Plate from the North American Plate. Divergent means that it is pulling the two plates apart, at a rate of roughly 2.5cm a year. This means that the North American Plate is being pulled westwards, whilst the Eurasian Plate is being pulled eastwards. This means that the UK is being pulled towards Europe. However, all movement is relative, so that the rest of Europe is also moving eastwards, meaning that the distance between mainland Europe and the UK is not currently decreasing.
If the sky is blue because of sea reflection, how come it's blue over thousands of miles of desert?
Unknown - 04 October 2011 - 2 answers - id: 1115
Answered by: Research Engineer, Lightning & Electrostatics
17 October 2011 10:19
I think you're a bit confused here - it's the other way round! The sea is blue because it reflects the colour of the sky! That's why the sea around the UK is normally a horrible grey colour...
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
01 November 2011 14:28
There is a very good explanation about why the sky is blue with pictures on this website: http://www.sciencemadesimple.com/sky_blue.html
How old is the oldest thing on Earth? What is it? Where is it? Why has it survived?
Roz lloyd - 04 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1078
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
05 October 2011 09:51
The oldest non-living object on Earth is a tiny speck of Zircon Crystal, that is so small, it is hardly visible with the naked eye and is thought to be 4.4billion years old. This is old if you think the Earth formed at about 4.57 billion years ago!!! The oldest rocks preserved on Earth are thought to be in Hudson Bay, Northwest Quebec, in Canada. A group of scientists dated them to be 4.28billion years old.
How many different types of soil are there?
Unknown - 03 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1073
Answered by: Geologist & Hydrogeologist
04 October 2011 14:34
Lots and lots and lots! There are many many different soil classifications, depending on what you want to think about soil for. For example, you can classify soil based on the size of the grains in it (sand, silt, clay), or you can classify it on how strong it is (cohesive, weak etc). If you want to know whether it will be good to build on, you will need to know about its strength. If you want to know how well it will drain, you will need to know how sandy or clayey it is. If you want to go into huge depth, try googling soil taxonomy which is a classification with some lovely names like spodosols and hapluldalfs. Hapludalfs sound like gnomes to me!
How many different types of fossil are there?
zac - 17 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1167
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
24 October 2011 13:09
Hi Zac!! That is a good question! I am afraid I don't know the exact answer, but I can say that there are is A LOT!!! Many many more than you can imagine!
Fossils vary in size from microscopic, such as single bacterial cells only one micrometer in diameter, to gigantic, such as dinosaurs and trees many metres long and weighing many tonnes. A fossil normally preserves only a portion of the deceased organism, usually that portion that was partially mineralized during life, such as the bones and teeth of vertebrates, or the chitinous or calcareous exoskeletons of invertebrates. Preservation of soft tissues is rare in the fossil record.
Fossils may also consist of the marks left behind by the organism while it was alive, such as the footprint or faeces (coprolites) of a reptile. These types of fossil are called trace fossils (or ichnofossils), as opposed to body fossils.
How is lightning created?
Unknown - 06 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1095
Answered by: Research Engineer, Lightning & Electrostatics
10 October 2011 10:34
Ice and water particles in the clouds constantly freeze, melt and move around bumping into each other. All of this causes a charge to build up which eventually gets too large and has to jump down to the ground - a bit like the charge building up in your body which escapes to the metal car or door handle and gives you a small electric shock. The path of the electricity from the cloud to the ground is the lightning strike.
How is coral formed?
Unknown - 11 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1140
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 14:10
Corals are actually marine organisms – they are living things!
How does the moon effect the tides and is it true that it can also affect people's moods?
Unknown - 05 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1179
Answered by: Head of Science, St Pauls School, London
28 October 2011 14:33
Our tides result from the way the moon's gravity pulls on the Earth. The side of the Earth facing the moon is pulled most strongly and so the sea bulges there. The middle of the Earth is next most strongly pulled and so moves away from the sea on the far side, which is pulled more weakly. As the Earth rotates, the bulges stay facing the moon (which also orbits us but less quickly than we turn) and so appear to move round the earth. There is more to the story than that - the way water rises and falls by different amounts in different places, but it's a good start.
Moods...well no. We are too small to feel tidal effects, in spite of being largely water - the difference in the gravity on one side of us and the other is too small to notice. No proper studies have shown up an effect - those that have shown, say, more police trouble on full moons, have run over short periods where the full moons coincided with weekends when there is more trouble anyway. So there's no basis for the idea of lunacy being moon-driven, in spite of the name!
How do miners know where to start digging?
Unknown - 08 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1208
Answered by: Electronic engineer
04 November 2011 21:45
It depends on what mineral or ore they are hoping to mine for. In most cases these days it is possible to use 3 Dimensional Seismic surveys to show what lies below the ground. From this data the underlying geology can be analysed & matched to geology types that can contain coal, gold, silver or oil deposits. After geology that contains minable deposits is found it is common for test drilling to take place to sample & verify the minable deposits before full scale mining is carried out.
How can you tell a stalactite from a stalagmite?
tommy mcgorrian - 29 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1237
Answered by: Planetarium Presenter
21 November 2011 12:30
Stalactites hang from the roof of caves, whereas Stalactmites grow upwards from the ground.
How are diamonds formed?
Unknown - 13 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1166
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
24 October 2011 12:59
Here is a good website that summarises a number of ways in which diamonds can form http://scrippsnews.ucsd.edu/Releases/?releaseID=736.
Read this blog post too which has some cool photos and images: http://geodynamo.wordpress.com/2010/05/23/kimberlites/. The first photo is that of a Kimberlite mine in South Africa, which I recently visited and it was really awesome! :)!
Due to the continuous shift in the plates how different will the earth look in 30 to 50 years time?
Unknown - 20 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1169
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
24 October 2011 13:06
Plates move at quite a slow rate, so in 30 to 50 years time, we wouldn't expect the Earth to look significantly different to how it does now. For example, the mid-ocean ridge is moving at 2.5 centimetres per year (cm/yr), or 25 km in a million years. So in 50 years, the plates that are diverging from it, will only move by about 1metre.
Events like very large earthquakes, tsunamis and volcaninc eruptions are likely to cause localised changes in the way the Earth looks. Overall, on that time scale, the Earth will look very similar to how it does today.
Do people live in Antarctica?
Adam Cooper - 06 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1138
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 13:51
No-one, natively. The only people that "live" there are scientists and explorers. They use specialist equipment designed for extremely cold conditions.
Considering how diamonds are formed where is the best place to find them?
Unknown - 04 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1091
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
06 October 2011 21:36
The formation of natural diamond requires very specific conditions - exposure of carbon-bearing materials to high pressure, but relatively low temperature range between approximately 900–1300°C. These conditions are met in two places on Earth; deep down in the mantle below relatively stable continental plates (between 140km-190km deep), and at the site of a meteorite strike. The correct combination of temperature and pressure is only found in the thick, ancient, and stable parts of continental plates where regions known as cratons exist. Spending a long time in this environment allows diamond crystals to grow larger. Examples of cratons are the Slave craton in Canada, the Wyoming craton in the United States, the Amazonia craton in South America, and the Kaapvaal craton in South Africa.
Atoms are made up of protons, electrons and neutrons. What are these made of down to the smallest level?
Jmoore - 04 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1112
Answered by: Electronic engineer
14 October 2011 14:30
At the sub atomic level there is something called a Quark of which there are 6 types. Each has a direction that may be either up, down, top, bottom, strange & charm quark. Quarks combine to forms of Hadrons of which a (Proton= 2 Up Quarks & 1 Down Quark) & (Neutron= 2 Down Quarks). The electron is not made up of Quarks & considered at this time (14/10/11) to be a fundamental particle so is not made up of any smaller sub units.
Why does the Earth spin clockwise and not anti-clockwise?
Unknown - 31 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1225
Answered by: Soil Scientist
14 November 2011 13:40
Well, first off, the earth only spins clockwise if you are looking at it from 'above' the south pole... from a vantage point in space above the north pole, it spins anti-clockwise!
The more interesting fact is that *nearly* all of the planets, and the Sun itself, spin in the same direction (anti-clockwise looking from the north) and the planets orbit the Sun in the same direction. Only Venus and Uranus are different - Venus spins slowly 'backwards' and Uranus' rotation is tilted relative to its orbit, so it looks like it is spinning on its side. The fact that there is a dominant direction to the spins and orbits of the bodies in the solar system is good evidence that they all originated in a single huge cloud of dust, which slowly collapsed in on itself under gravity.
Although initially each dust particle was moving in a different direction, as the cloud collapsed a quantity called 'angular momentum' increased and all the particles were swept up in a much faster movement, all in the same direction (determined by the average movement of all the original particles). Imagine an ice skater when she spins round and gets faster by pressing her arms close to her body. So, the direction of the Earth's spin was determined 5 billion years ago by the average movement of the tiny specks of stardust which make up everything we see around us - and ourselves!
Why did the land on earth split from one big piece of land, into the continents we know today?
Charlotte Alice - 04 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1229
Answered by: Soil Scientist
14 November 2011 21:22
The land surface - the continents - literally 'float' on top of denser rocks that form the ocean floors. Beneath both continental and oceanic rocks, the Earth is, while not actually liquid, still hot enough to be able to move very slowly - like very cold treacle or candlewax. So the continents are pulled across the Earth's surface by the movements of the rocks beneath. At the moment they are quite widely scattered, but you are right that about 250 million years ago they were all pushed together in one giant continent, which we call Pangaea. But before that, they were all scattered again, and before that there was another supercontinent called Rodinia (about 800 million years ago). And there were others before then.
What percentage of the Earth is covered in water?
Clairebear - 08 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1170
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
24 October 2011 13:10
Hi Claire! About 71% of the Earth's surface is covered by oceans.
What makes the earth rotate on it's axis?
Andrew - 30 May 2011 - 2 answers - id: 659
Answered by: Postdoctoral Research Assistant in atomic and laser physics
03 June 2011 11:43
There are a few more details in our answers here: http://www.futuremorph.org/hiddenscience.cfm?category=5050&question=1692
Answered by: Head of Science, St Pauls School, London
01 June 2011 08:25
The reason the Earth rotates on its axis is that is always has! When the solar system formed from a cloud of gas and particles, slowly collapsing under its own gravitational attraction, it had a slight spin to it. This can be seen by the way the planets and asteroids all revolve around the sun in the same direction and in the same plane. Each planet would have formed with the same spin so, barring anything catastrophic happening, it spins the same way as the whole solar system.
The collision with a large object that caused the moon to be ejected probably also helped tilt the Earth's axis over (which gives us seasons).
Is it true that the Earth used to have a supercontinent called pangea?
(null) - 06 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1106
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
13 October 2011 11:00
It is believed that during a period of time know as Palaeozoic and Mezozoic, 250million years ago, a supercontinent know as Pangea existed. Here is an animation of the continents separating from their Pangea configuration http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pangea_animation_03.gif. There have been a number of other supercontinent configurations of the Earth's plates, over the Earth's history: Rodinia, Pannotia, and a number of others.
Fossil evidence for Pangaea includes the presence of similar and identical species on continents that are now great distances apart. Additional evidence for Pangaea is found in the geology of adjacent continents, including matching geological trends between the eastern coast of South America and the western coast of Africa. Paleomagnetic study of apparent polar wandering paths also support the theory of a super-continent.
How were tectonic plates discovered? And how do geologists know their future movements?
Thatspecialgirl - 30 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1230
Answered by: Soil Scientist
14 November 2011 21:42
Many people had noticed the jigsaw-like fit between e.g. the Americas and Africa-Europe, since reasonably accurate maps first appeared. However, Alfred Wegener, a German scientist in the early 20th century, was the first to seriously propose that the continents moved around on the surface of the Earth. But he couldn't propose a mechanism - how did they move? It wasn't until the 1960s that later scientists discovered that ocean crust is continually being created at mid-ocean ridges and destroyed at subduction zones - and so continents are being pushed away from mid-ocean ridges (hence the Atlantic is getting wider). The rate and direction of movement can actually be measured today using very sensitive lasers and GPS, but we also have evidence of rates and directions in the past from measurements of palaeomagnetism on the seabed rocks. We can predict future movements based on current measurements.
How old is the Earth?
Brad - 05 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1083
Answered by: Professor of Earth Sciences
06 October 2011 12:55
The Earth is a little over 4.5 billion years old. We know this from the study of the radioactive decay of certain elements in meteorites, and from the study of the rocks exposed on the Earth's surface. The scientific concensus is that the Earth formed quickly from the collision and accumulation of meteorites, small planets and dust in a rapidly spinning and dense nebula; and that it formed soon after the formation of most meteorites (at about 4.56 billion years). The oldest rock fragments (in fact, crystals of zircon) on Earth, other than meteorites, are probably just a little bit older than about 4.4 billion years.
How much mineral does the Earth have left?
Unknown - 05 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1143
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 14:19
For an awesome new resource by the British Geological Survey on the risk of future supply of minerals check this out - http://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/statistics/riskList.html
How do you measure the age of the earth?
Unknown - 03 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1089
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
06 October 2011 21:52
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t9-lyZEgqlI This is a very interesting video - it is presented by Prof. Dan McKenzie, a distinguished geologist/geophysicist. In it, the discovery of how to measure the age of the Earth is explained! As a taster, I can tell you that we do it, using the decay of radioactive elements.
How did the earth really come about?
Unknown - 30 May 2011 - 1 answer - id: 721
Answered by: Development Manager
06 June 2011 14:19
Bearing in mind the creation of the universe takes a while, then the creation of the earth would be quite some time. What would have happened is that assuming a fairly even distribution of matter, gradually some of the matter would start to coalesce - and as time marched on, more of it would be picked up - like a snowball turning into a part for a snowman. In addition, there were meteor strikes - some of which would just add to the mass, and others would knock some matter off the earth. Eventually, the earth would have been big enough to have its own atmosphere, and with the right conditions, start life. This would have taken many millions of years - starting from the big bang.
There is a specific term used by geologists to describe rock weathering in which shells or plates are broken away from a rock leaving it rounded in appearance. What is the term?
Unknown - 01 November 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1226
Answered by: Soil Scientist
14 November 2011 13:26
I think you're referring to 'onion skin' weathering, which happens in hot desert areas when a rock is repeatedly heated and cooled over many days and nights. In the intense heat of the day the outer layers expand more than the interior; then when the sun goes down and heat is rapidly lost under clear skies, it cools down faster than the interior. These big changes in thermal regime basically cause the outer layers to crack and eventually fall off.
When will the sun burn out/die?
Unknown - 12 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 764
Answered by: Postdoctoral researcher in Electrical engineering
13 June 2011 12:08
Hi there.
The Sun is powered through a process called Nuclear Fusion. In this it converts Hydrogen into Helium and releases energy in the process. It is belived that the Sun has been doing this for around four and a half billion years already and that in this time it has used up nearly half its Hydrogen.
It is thought that the Sun has enough Hydrogen left for another 5 billion years.
However towards the end of this time (in 4 - 4.5 billion years) the sun will change into a Red Giant Star. This happens when the Hydrogen supply gets quite low and when this happens the Sun will become much bigger and expand to such a size that the Earth will be inside the Sun!!
If the Eurasian Plate is sinking below the West American Plate, does this mean the volcanic islands of Hawaii are made of the already sunk and melted bits of the Eurasian Plate, and therefore should class itself part of America but instead part of Europe/Asia?
Daniel - 20 April 2011 - 1 answer - id: 490
Answered by: Lecturer in forensic geophysics
17 May 2011 14:44
Hello Daniel. The Hawaiian chain of islands (and the sub-surface seamounts) if you notice form a line of raised material along the Pacific Ocean abyssal sea floor. No-one is really sure of their origin, but the present, most accepted theory, is that there is a mantle plume that is fixed at depth, causing upward migration of heat from the Earth's core. As the oceanic Pacific Plate progressively moves over this 'fixed point', new, molten material is forced up onto the surface to create the succession island chains and seamounts. The plume is presently under Hawaii. Cool eh!
Why do volcanoes need to erupt?
Unknown - 08 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1150
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 15:30
In very simple terms –
As magma is lighter that the surrounding rock it rises and collects in magma chambers. As it is rising gases expand and build up. Through weaknesses in the surrounding rock, the magma pushes through vents or fissures to the surface; an eruption.
Why are volcanoes usually on a mountain or hill?
Unknown - 12 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1171
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
24 October 2011 13:16
There are two ways to answer this.
Firstly, as a volcano erupts, it produces materials such as lava flows, pyroclastic flows and general ejecta (often hot rocks). These are deposited along the flanks (sides) of the volcano and so, they slowly create a mound along the sides of a crater, forming a hill of its own right.So a volcano, is often a mountain in its own right.
Secondly, mountain ranges are associated with convergent plate tectonic boundaries, where one tectonic plate is forced under another. This means that immediately underneath the mountain range, an awful lot of melting of material is taking place and that has to go somewhere - often, erupting through a volcano - which happens to be sitting on a mountain range.
Why are there so many volcanoes erupting at the moment?
Unknown - 06 June 2011 - 2 answers - id: 729
Answered by: Development Manager
09 June 2011 06:27
I'm not a volcanologist, but I suspect there are many aspects to this. Firstly, a volcano will erupt when a number of factors come together - so there needs to be magma near the surface of the volcano, and if there is a lot of activity with tectonic plates moving, this could mean multiple volcanoes are more active in one area. For a volcano to erupt, the top of the volcano needs to weaken to allow the lava to flow - and maybe if there is plate tectonic movement, it helps to allow the lava to flow. The last part of this is quite an interesting phenomena! If you look at the news - whether on the radio, TV or a newspaper, there is a bias towards reporting events that are associated with current events - so if you normally have a car accident closing a road being reported - you may then find smaller accidents that wouldn't normally be reported also being "newsworthy". And it may be a similar event here - that a large eruption is reported, followed by the reporting of several other more minor eruptions that normally wouldn't have been reported. If I remember correctly, following the Japanese earthquake, an "earthquake" measuring less than 2 on the Richter scale was reported!
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 14:33
It’s not just the fact that events when current are reported more, its also the issue that with global media its easier to report on news and we hear of things more often.
When Mount Tambora erupted in 1815 many countries received the climatic effects before hearing of the eruption!
The first volcanic eruption to be globally reported (via the telegraph wires) was Krakatoa in 1883.
Where is the oldest volcano in the world?
Unknown - 28 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1203
Answered by: Soil Scientist
01 November 2011 22:38
Hello. The general consensus appears to be that Mt Etna, Sicily, is the world's oldest ACTIVE volcano, having a history going back 350,000 years and still going strong, with eruptions in the last month. However, volcanoes in places such as Alaska, located above a long-lived subducting plate boundary (look it up on Wikipedia) have volcanic mountain chains with activity dating back several million years (although the oldest volcanoes in these chains are considered DORMANT or EXTINCT).
If we count extinct volcanoes, then you can go right back to the early history of the Earth. The Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain, formed by a single volcanic hotspot, dates back at least 65 million years, and the oldest rocks on Earth, in places like Greenland and Canada, South Africa and Australia, include volcanic lavas more than 4 billion years old.
When will be the next super volcano - and will it be Mt. St. Helens?
Jason - 04 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1079
Answered by: Geology & Geophysics PhD student
05 October 2011 13:20
We cannot predict when the next 'super eruption' will occur. Scientists are putting their efforts into understanding the signals that lead up to a large eruption, but there are many variables - where the volcano is, what type of activity it has experienced before, etc... For some time now, it has been proposed that the next super volcano could be in Yellowstone, in northwester USA. The area is geologically very interesting and exciting, as it represents a large volcaninc calera, which covers most of Yellowstone National park and is 34miles in size. Yellowstone, lies over a hotspot where light, hot, molten mantle rock rises towards the surface. This process could eventually lead to a large volcaninc eruption.
What makes a volcano stop erupting?
Sophiexx - 13 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1147
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 14:42
In essence when it runs out of energy! This will depend on numerous factors.
Simplistically, volcanoes erupt because of a build up of pressure (other issues too!), but essentially when this pressure has been released, the eruption will cease. Pressure is from a build up of gases and therefore when this has been “degassed” this is when the eruption is likely to stop.
What is lava from volcanoes made of?
Aakta Patel - 16 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1146
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 15:04
Molten rock before its erupted is called magma. Once erupted this is called LAVA. Once cooled it forms igneous or magmatic rock.
Lava’s exact composition is dependant on geographic location and the concentration of gases.
What is a supervolcano and how do they differ from normal volcanoes? How are they formed?
Unknown - 27 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1182
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
28 October 2011 15:52
A Supervolcano is a large-scale eruption, GENERALLY defined by erupting material over 1,000km3. This is far greater than “normal” volcanoes. They tend to occur due to pressure build up in the magma chamber from hotspots or convergent boundaries.
Notable examples are Yellowstone (USA) and Campi Flegrei (Naples).
Name 3 types of volcanic rock?
Alex - 15 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1145
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 15:08
Volcanic rocks are typically divided into four types. The categorisation is based on the amount of silica in the rock:
Basalt (48-52% silica), Andesite (52-63% silica), Dacite (63-68% slica), Rhyolite (68% silica).
How many active volcanoes are there in the world?
Unknown - 18 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1148
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 14:46
Useful website -
http://www.geo.mtu.edu/volcanoes/world.html
How long does a volcano take to erupt?
Jawsjones - 05 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1084
Answered by: Professor of Earth Sciences
06 October 2011 13:00
This completely depends on the volcano, and the eruption. At the one end, some eruptions are tiny, and last just a few hours as the molten rock escapes to the surface (there was an example of a very small eruption like this in Iceland in the 1970's). At the other end, some eruptions have been continuing for as long as humans have been recording observations (For example, the Stromboli volcano in Italy has been erupting on and off but continuously for at least 2000 years). Large explosive eruptions are usally over quite quickly - perhaps in just a few hours (like Mt St Helens in May 1980), or days (like Pinatubo, Philippines, in 1991); but quite often eruptions linger on for months or years, as they slowly wind down.
How hot is lava when it is released from a volcano?
Unknown - 21 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1158
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
24 October 2011 10:55
The temperate range is 700° C to 1200° C. However this varies from volcano to volcano and from eruption to eruption.
How can scientists predict if a volcano will erupt?
Unknown - 28 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1183
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
28 October 2011 15:56
A lot of volcanoes occur after a period of seismic unrest and changes in the local environment that scientists read to gauge an impending eruption; hence why accuracy can be difficult!
For example:
- Harmonic tremors; these are common and are defined as a “sustained energy release” – they are like very small earthquakes almost continuously. They are not always felt by the local populace! - Soil and water can change pH. - Ground uplift or deflation. - Earthquakes. - Lava dome growth.
Does the volcano erupting put harmful gases into the ozone layer?
Unknown - 25 May 2011 - 2 answers - id: 644
Answered by: Soil Scientist
28 May 2011 21:04
Hello. I guess you're asking specifically about the Grimsvotn eruption in Iceland? Well, its a good question to ask, since the eruption cloud of ash and gas did rise up to 20 km above the ground, which is well into the lower level of the stratosphere, where the ozone layer is found.
However, although there is some debate about the significance of volcanic impacts on the ozone layer the current general consensus is that these impacts are short-lived. The US Environmental Protection Agency has a good article on its website which debunks the 'myth', as it puts it, that volcanic activity has long-term impacts on ozone - http://www.epa.gov/Ozone/science/myths/volcano.html. The main agent of concern is hydrogen chloride (HCl) gas, which can very efficiently break down ozone. However, in most cases this gas will be removed from the eruption plume lower down, in the troposphere, where it condenses as rain or ice crystals and therefore does not react with the ozone.
On the other hand, volcanic plumes are full of very tiny dust particles, called aerosols, which can act as catalysts which increase the rate of reactions in the stratosphere. So the more aerosols are present in the ozone layer, the faster the ozone-depleting reactions. However, once again this harmful effect is limited by the gradual aggregation and settling of the particles out of the atmosphere.
So is there a risk of significant damage to the ozone layer from Grimsvotn? Probably not. Even though it is much larger than the Eyjafjallajökull eruption last year, Grimsvotn's current eruption is still 10 - 100 times less powerful than the Mt Pinatubo eruption in the Philippines in 1991, which is the only commonly-cited eruption to have made a significant measurable impact on the ozone layer. That effect, reducing lower-stratospheric ozone by up to one third, lasted for a few years only.
Useful websites: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%ADmsv%C3%B6tn http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_Explosivity_Index http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanowatch/2005/05_07_28.html http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/education/gases/ozone.html
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
29 September 2011 10:03
A few extra points - according to the 2002 scientific assessment of ozone depletion, the 1991 eruption of Pinatubo only reduced the total amount of ozone by about 6%, for up to 4 years, and mostly affected the Northern Hemisphere. - when volcanic eruptions are powerful enough to get stuff up into the stratophere, they dont just effect the chemical processes going on. As they have an impact on the temperature of the stratosphere as well, there can be an effect on the dynamics of the stratosphere - how things are moved about.
Are there any volcanoes in England that could erupt?
(null) - 10 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1144
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 14:39
The British Geological Survey have a "Why no volcanoes?" download from their site.
Answers your question perfectly!
Why is it so cold in some parts of the world yet extremely warm in others?
Unknown - 17 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1153
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 15:41
There is a great website for this - http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/climate.htm
It explains the different climatic zones in the world. Enjoy.
Why have we just had a week of hot weather in October?
Unknown - 03 October 2011 - 2 answers - id: 1116
Answered by: Research Engineer, Lightning & Electrostatics
17 October 2011 11:24
It happens now and again - weather patterns are not fixed to happen exactly the same every year and so sometimes we get hot/cold periods when we wouldn't usually expect it!
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
01 November 2011 14:22
Because we were getting our weather from the South - and at this time of year, the ground temperature in continental Europe is still nice and warm, warming the air before it came our way. We are more used to getting our weather from the West (wet) or north (cold) at this time of year, although this is a bit of a generalisation.
Why does thunder and lightening occur?
Unknown - 29 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1218
Answered by: Research Engineer, Lightning & Electrostatics
09 November 2011 11:46
Charge builds up in the clouds and eventually that charge needs to escape. It discharges down to the Earth and the path of electricity is the lightening strike. The heat from this is hotter than the surface of the sun and makes the air expand really quickly - this creates a shock wave producing the sound we know as a thunder clap.
Why does rain turn acidic?
Beth915 - 12 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1152
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 15:34
Acid rain is precipitation with high levels of either sulphuric or nitric acid. Although it can occur from volcanic activity most is man-made and is a result of air pollution; consumption of fossil fuels is the biggest cause.
It can damage wildlife and trees extensively and corrode buildings and structures.
The only “treatment” is to prevent pollution in the first place!
Why does low cloud form above the north sea?
Sam - 11 August 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1069
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning/ Royal Meteorological Society
29 September 2011 09:23
This all depends on where the air is coming from, and what is happening to it. On the whole, cloud forms when, for whatever reason, the air is cooled and the amount of condensation going on increases relative to the amount of evaporation. In the winter, the sea surface tends to be warmer than the land surface; air blowing over it is warmed and becomes more humid. As it gets warmer, convection starts, the air rises and cools and cloud forms. This is particularly true when the wind is blowing from the N/ NE/ NW and the air is being warmed as it gets further South. This will give you cumulus clouds.
Sea fog (very low stratus cloud) is a bit different. This occurs when the wind is coming from the S/ SE/ SW and is being cooled from below as it travels northwards. In the summer, you'd expect sea fog to be mainly over the sea, in the winter it can linger over land as well.
Why does it get windy before it rains?
Unknown - 03 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1124
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
19 October 2011 08:44
Heavy showers are often accompanied by downdraughts - strong currents of descending air that extend from the cloudbase to the ground. On hitting the ground these air currents then spread out and flow along the ground resulting in gusty winds that arrive just before the rain.
(answer supplied by Dr Pete Inness, from Reading University's Meteorology Department)
Why do weather reports seem less accurate these days?
Emma - 04 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1199
Answered by: Soil Scientist
01 November 2011 22:27
This seems like an odd question - I think there's strong evidence that weather reports are more accurate than ever. I wonder if perhaps our expectations of them have increased too much though - because they try to provide very precise, very specific forecasts we now expect them to be completely 100% perfect! I think that, aside from being able to say for certain the sun will rise tomorrow at a specified time in a specified place (which can be calculated precisely from the Earth's orbit and rotation), it is still amazing that anyone can forecast what the atmosphere is going to throw at us with any degree of certainty at all!
Why do cows lie down when it's going to rain?
Sophiexx - 15 June 2011 - 2 answers - id: 765
Answered by: Development Manager
21 June 2011 06:03
It may be because it makes them less vulnerable to lightning. It may be because rain may be preceded by a drop in atmospheric pressure, and this makes their stomachs feel more bloated. It may be because their joints are sensitive to a fall in atmospheric pressure like many people who have arthritis. However, there was a TV show that looked at this, and they filmed a field of cows before and during a rainstorm, and there was no correlation between cows lying down and the rain. So three more possibilities exist that I can quickly think of - one is that the phenomena doesn't exist; another is that cows only lie down with falling pressure; or that cows don't like being filmed lying down :-)
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning/ Royal Meteorological Society
29 September 2011 09:07
From TheWeather Club magazine/website: If a well known piece of old countryside folklore is to be believed, a sure sign of the imminent arrival of rain is the sight of a herd of cows sitting down in a field. But then again, if old countryside folklore is to be believed, black dogs are devils and Londoners can't be trusted, so it's a claim that cries out for further examination.
In truth, it's fairly difficult to find a definitive answer as to whether or not the idea of a bovine weather gauge is pure bunkum, although it almost certainly is. So far, there's been no large-scale formal study of this phenomenon. The only ones who know for sure are the cows – and they're not telling.
At the heart of this myth lies the simple observation that cows often lie down shortly before it starts to rain. The problem with this, in evidential terms, is that both of these events – cows lying down, and the heavens opening – happen with such frequency that proving a link between the two is pretty much impossible. The fact that, in one of the dampest countries in the world, it quite often starts to rain shortly after some cows lie down is probably true - but it's also equally likely that a cow will lie down shortly before somebody talks about football or eats a sausage, yet nobody has ever suggested that cows are accurate predictors of sports-based conversations or bad diet. Cows often lie down before the sun comes out too, but nobody has ever pushed that as being significant. No country with less frequent rain seems to have made the same observation – if Indian cows all flopped down en masse with the coming of the monsoon, that would be impressive.
And if cows do lie down before it rains, what on earth is their motive? It has been suggested that cows don't like sitting in wet grass, or dislike eating wet grass and so are keeping a patch dry, or that cows slip over when it gets wet so are taking precautionary measures. Can cows really be so precious? The only thing we know for sure is that they do tend to lie down when chewing the cud – something that has absolutely no bearing on the weather.
The last word should go to meteorologist Bill Giles: "I used to ask a farmer friend, who swore by the saying, what happened if half were standing, and half were lying down. He turned to me and said one word: 'Showery'!"
Why are there clouds in the UK but not in Egypt?
Unknown - 04 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1123
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
18 October 2011 09:48
You get clouds when water vapour condenses into lots of tiny water droplets. For this to happen, there firstly has to be a reasonable amount of water vapour in the atmosphere - for example if the air has recently travelled over an ocean (usually the case for the UK). Then, the air has to be cooled down - maybe by coming into contact with colder ground (UK in winter) or because of convection - as air rises, it expands and cools. Whilst there will be lots of convection going on in Egypt, as the air is heated from underneath by the warm ground, if there isnt enough moisture in the air, clouds won't form. In Northern Hemisphere winter, Egypt might also experience relatively high pressure, with subsiding air, which we associate with clear skies. Satellite images are great for seeing where cloud is forming.
Why are all snowflakes different?
Unknown - 26 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1201
Answered by: Soil Scientist
01 November 2011 22:13
Hello. Snowflakes are formed of ice crystals which grow (nucleate) around tiny particles of dust suspended in the air. It is the same process by which a raindrop forms from water vapour, except of course the temperature must be sufficiently low so that ice, rather than liquid water, is condensed.
The key thing to remember is that it is the individual molecules of water that are hooking up to each other, one by one, to form the ice crystal. Although there are only a few ways in which each molecule can join to another one (a bit like fitting hexagonal tiles together), there is no limit as to where on the crystal each one joins, no rule which says every space must be filled in a certain order, and no constraint on the time each snowflake has to grow, or the changes in temperature it experiences, or so on. Essentially the growth, although constructed around the hexagonal geometry of the water molecule, is completely random - all combinations of molecules are possible.
Now, each snowflake has about 10 billion billion (1 with 19 zeros after it!) molecules, and the total number of different combinations all those molecules can form is so large it might as well be infinite. On the other hand, David Phillips, the senior climatologist with Environment Canada, has estimated that the number of snowflakes that have fallen on Earth over the course of time is 10 followed by 34 zeros! While that's a lot, its still a lot less than infinity - so the chances of any two snowflakes ever being alike are therefore more or less zero. In all probability, then, all snowflakes are different and its because of the random, or 'stochastic' way in which they form. I should credit a Feb 13, 2007 National Geographic article by John Roach for some of the figures I quote.
Why and how do lightning storms occur? Are they affected by other weather such as tornadoes, hurricanes etc?
Unknown - 07 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1097
Answered by: Research Engineer, Lightning & Electrostatics
10 October 2011 10:34
Ice and water particles in the clouds constantly freeze, melt and move around bumping into each other. All of this causes a charge to build up which eventually gets too large and has to jump down to the ground - a bit like the charge building up in your body which escapes to the metal car or door handle and gives you a small electric shock. The path of the electricity from the cloud to the ground is the lightning strike.
Where do clouds go when the sun is shining?
Unknown - 11 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1119
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
18 October 2011 09:53
They don't, necessarily! If there is low cloud (fog or sheets of low lying stratus) which has formed overnight if the air has been cooled by the ground, then the Sun can 'burn' (evaporate) this cloud away in the morning. However, more typically, we associate sunny, warm days with convection - the Sun heats up the ground, the ground heats up the air above it and it starts to rise. As it rises, it expands and cools until eventually the rate at which water vapour is condensing is faster than the rate at which water is evaporating - and cloud's droplets form. Then we get the puffy cumulus clouds which we associate with warm days. These can grow into the huge cumulonimbus clouds which bring us thunderstorms and sometimes tornadoes.
What was the coldest ever recorded temperature on Earth?
Unknown - 31 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1205
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
03 November 2011 16:14
Vostok station in Antarctica reached -89.2C on 21/7/1983. In the middle of the Antarctic winter, a very tight vortex develops around the South Pole, mainly because the continent is pretty symmetrical. This isolates it from the air further North, meaning no warmer air is mixed in. In the Polar night, the air just keeps getting colder until the sun returns in the spring. This is also the reason why stratospheric ozone loss is most severe over the south pole.
What causes winds and gales?
pinkcadillac - 07 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1121
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
18 October 2011 10:08
We get wind when there is a pressure difference in the atmosphere - air flows from high pressure to low pressure. It's easier to think of if you think of two containers of water, with a barrier inbetween them. If one container has deep water (high pressure) and one has shallow water (low pressure) and you suddenly remove the barrier between them, then you would expect the water to flow until the water level was the same in both containers. Same thing goes on in the atmosphere, complicated by friction at the Earth's surface, and the fact that the Earth is rotating. But basically, the bigger the pressure difference, the faster the wind speeds - so when a really deep low pressure system is heading our way, we know that it's going to be windy.
What causes the vast difference in weather? Hot days and then predicted snow?
Unknown - 08 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1197
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
01 November 2011 14:37
For us in the UK, a small island with a big ocean on one side and a big continent on the other, it all depends on where the wind is blowing from, and what time of year it is. Depending on whether the air has passed over a warm, cold, wet or dry surface before reaching us will effect what weather we get.
What causes a thunderstorm?
Flick - 20 October 2011 - 2 answers - id: 1161
Answered by: Chief Executive, Royal Meteorological Society
02 November 2011 11:14
In order for a thunder cloud (known as a cumulonimbus cloud) to form, the air has to be unstable. This means the air is warm near the ground but cooler higher up. For example, warm air is found near the ground on a sunny day, when the sun heats the ground and the ground heats the air in contact with it. If at the same time the air higher up is cool (perhaps because it has been blown in from the north), then the warm air near the ground will rise up because it is less dense than the cool air above. This process is called convection. If the temperature of the warm air is much greater than that of the cold air above, then this convection will be intense and cause strong updrafts, or thermals. This typically happens in mid-afternoon, when the ground has been warmed for several hours.
As the warm air rises, it expands and cools, until it is too cold to 'hold' all of the water vapour it has in it (we call this temperature the "dew point") and so some of the water vapour condenses into water droplets, thus forming a cloud. The top of the cloud is carried higher and higher by the strong thermals, and can eventually reach 10km or more. The temperature there is so low that some of the water turns to ice crystals - hence the top of a thunderstorm cloud is usually fuzzy in appearance.
The ice crystals are different sizes, and when they collide within the cloud they build up an electric charge. Because of rising and sinking air within the cloud, this charge can separate to give a large positive charge at the top of the cloud and a large negative charge at the bottom. When the charges build up enough, they are discharged in a bolt of lightning inside the cloud. When the thunder cloud passes over the ground it induces an opposite charge at the ground, and then lightning can jump from the bottom of the cloud to the ground. Lightning strokes heat up the air very rapidly and make it expand explosively - this is what we hear as thunder.
Answered by: Research Engineer, Lightning & Electrostatics
24 October 2011 14:49
Charge builds up in the clouds and eventually that charge needs to escape. It discharges down to the earth and the path of electricity is the lightening strike. The heat from this is hotter than the surface of the sun and makes the air expand really quickly - this creates a shock wave producing the sound we know as a thunder clap.
How reliable are weather warnings?
Unknown - 19 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1155
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 15:21
Compared to some other natural phenomena, weather science, to some extent, can be monitored and predicted.
The Met Office is responsible for the UK’s severe weather warnings and although lead time on some events can still be too short there is a good, established process in place.
http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/uk/advice/
How many different types of cloud are there?
Unknown - 14 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1117
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
18 October 2011 09:31
There are 10 main types of cloud: cirrocumulus, cirrus, cirrostatus, altocumulus, altostratus, cumulus, stratocumulus, stratus, cumulonimbus and nimbostratus. However, there are variations of some of those - for example Cumulus Humilis, or stratocumulus lenticularis.
There is lots more information in Gavin Pretor Pinneys 'Cloudspotters Guide' or on the RMetS website http://www.metlink.org/weather-climate-resources-teachers/useful-links.html#clouds
How is the wind caused?
Unknown - 10 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1120
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
18 October 2011 10:09
We get wind when there is a pressure difference in the atmosphere - air flows from high pressure to low pressure. It's easier to think of if you think of two containers of water, with a barrier inbetween them. If one container has deep water (high pressure) and one has shallow water (low pressure) and you suddenly remove the barrier between them, then you would expect the water to flow until the water level was the same in both containers. Same thing goes on in the atmosphere, complicated by friction at the Earth's surface, and the fact that the Earth is rotating. But basically, the bigger the pressure difference, the faster the wind speeds - so when a really deep low pressure system is heading our way, we know that it's going to be windy
How is acid rain formed?
PeteWilkes - 26 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1202
Answered by: Soil Scientist
01 November 2011 21:52
Hello Pete. All rainwater is slightly acid (pH 6 ish), because the water droplets react with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). However, increased levels of sulphur and nitrogen gases in the atmosphere cause more powerful acids to form - sulphuric acid and nitric acid - which can lower the pH of the rainwater to as low as 2.
Although there are substantial variations in the levels of these gases depending on where you are in the world and what direction the wind is blowing, in the latter part of the last century it became clear that heavy industries were responsible for highly acidic rainwater across large areas of Europe and the US.
How does the met office predict the weather?
Gunnie - 05 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1151
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 15:18
Hopefully this will answer some of your questions - http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/weather
How does lightning occur?
Unknown - 26 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1186
Answered by: Research Engineer, Lightning & Electrostatics
31 October 2011 12:01
Charge builds up in the clouds and eventually that charge needs to escape. It discharges down to the earth and the path of electricity is the lightning strike. The heat from this is hotter than the surface of the sun and makes the air expand really quickly - this creates a shock wave producing the sound we know as a thunder clap.
How does a meteorologist predict changes in the weather?
Unknown - 21 October 2011 - 2 answers - id: 1198
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
01 November 2011 14:34
Meteorologists need three things to be able to predict the weather:
1. Really good data describing what the weather is doing now. This comes from weather stations, satellites, radar, weather buoys, etc.
2. A good understanding of how the atmosphere (and oceans) work - and to be able to describe that in terms of equations.
3. A really powerful computer, to let you solve all the equations before the weather you are trying to predict actually happens.
Answered by: Chief Executive, Royal Meteorological Society
02 November 2011 11:21
To forecast weather over the next few days, meteorologists develop and use very large computer programmes known as numerical weather prediction models. These represent the processes that take place in the atmosphere such as the movement of air (both horizontally and vertically), the transfer of heat and water vapour, the generation of clouds and rainfall, how sunlight and infra-red radiation pass through the atmosphere, and many, many more.
The model is started with the current state of the atmosphere, represented on a three-dimensional grid of points covering the whole globe and stretching from the surface to the stratosphere. A set of atmospheric variables, such as wind speed, temperature, pressure and humidity at each grid point are stored and a set of equations are solved to predict the values at that point a short time later. This process is repeated many times; each time the forecast stepping a few minutes further into the future to stimulate the evolution of the weather over the next few days.
The model requires huge numbers of observations to tell it what the starting state of the atmosphere is. These come from weather stations, weather balloons, ships, buoys, aircraft and weather satellites.
The chief forecaster (such as the one at the Met Office in Exeter) depends heavily on forecasts from several models to help him decide on how the weather will change, and also takes into account predictions from models run by other countries such as the US and Germany.
How do you know if clouds have rain in them?
Unknown - 19 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1154
Answered by: Environmental Scientist
20 October 2011 15:37
Rain clouds, or Nimbostratus, are characterised by being grey and formless.
How do you describe a cumulus cloud?
ChazR - 03 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1196
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
01 November 2011 14:16
"Cumulus are low, detached, puffy clouds that develop vertically in rising mounds, domes or towers, and have generally flat bases. Their upper parts often resemble cauliflowers and they appear brilliant white when reflecting high sunlight, but can look dark when the sun is behind them. Cumulus tend to be randomly scattered across the sky." (Taken from Gavin Pretor-Pinneys Cloudspotters Guide)
How do we get lightning?
Char - 10 May 2011 - 2 answers - id: 354
Answered by: Postdoctoral researcher in Electrical engineering
13 May 2011 11:52
Hi Char, Lightning is the sudden movement of 'charged' particles from the sky to the ground. The principle behind lightning is static electricity you might be more familiar with this if your hair ever stands on end when putting on a jumper, or sometimes you can get a mini electric shock from a car door. Static electricity is caused by particles becoming charged, typically this means atoms gaining or losing electrons as they rub against each other. This leads to areas of positive and negative charges, once the charge is big enough the electrons move from the negative to the positive region restoring neutral atoms and this is the flow of static electricity. The origin of charged particles in the sky responsible for lighting is still unclear although it seems most likely to be caused by small ice particles hitting each other and becoming charged. This charge build up then becomes so great that the electrons can jump all the way to the earth.
Answered by: Research Engineer, Lightning & Electrostatics
01 August 2011 09:24
As ice and water particles rub against each other in the cloud, the frictional force causes them to become charged - positively charged particles rise to the top of the cloud and negative ones sink to the base. Because similar charges repel (just like two north poles on a magnet repel each other), the negative charges at the base of the cloud force the negative charges on the earth lower down and so the earth's surface becomes positive. Nature always wants to balance it back out so eventually, a path of electricity travels between the regions of positive and negative charge - that's the lightning strike!
How do clouds stay up?
Unknown - 05 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1122
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
18 October 2011 09:58
If you look at a cloud, you'll see that it usually has a pretty flat base. This is because the temperature of the atmosphere falls as you go up, and the cloud forms when the temperature is below a certain value. The actual air inside the cloud is continually moving, and the water droplets which we can see are also moving, growing, and shrinking all the time, but we see a cloud where the conditions (temperature, humidity) are just right for a cloud to exist. Once the water droplets that make up the cloud get big enough, and the gravitational pull of the Earth is bigger than the combined effects of the updraughts in the cloud, friction etc. then the droplets fall down - and if they dont evaporate again on their way down, then we get rain.
How are clouds created?
Gunnie - 08 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1118
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
18 October 2011 09:35
Clouds are created when water condenses in the atmosphere - in the same way as you get condensation on bathroom mirrors and windows when someone is having a bath. Cloud droplets can exist when there is more condensation going on than evaporation, which usually means when the temperature of the air is cold enough.
As air temperature generally falls with height, this means that clouds can form above a certain level. It's complicated a bit by the fact that clouds can't form in clean air, the water needs something to condense onto - salt sprayed up from the oceans, soot, sulphate particles etc.
There is lots more information on http://www.metlink.org/weather-climate-resources-teachers/useful-links.html#clouds
How and why does the weather and changing seasons affect people's moods and well-being?
Storme - 12 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1200
Answered by: Soil Scientist
01 November 2011 22:22
I'm not sure how much research has been done into this (perhaps Wikipedia could help here?), but quite apart from the fact that cold rainy weather is not particularly comfortable and warm sunny weather is, I think there are two key effects:
(i) Pressure differences - Most of our weather is associated with changes in atmospheric pressure (you will have heard of high pressure associated with calm, sunny weather and low pressure associated with wind and rain storms). These pressure changes are literally differences in the weight of air pressing down on our bodies. Ordinarily we don't think about this because we are adapted to the weight, but it is significant and its possible that people are physically affected by variations.
(ii) Seasonal Affective Disorder is a condition in which the low light levels, cold, and darkness of winter cause often serious mental depression in sufferers. It has been linked with a low production of Vitamin D and seratonin (a 'happiness hormone') because of a lack of sunlight. In places like Scandinavia, which have long dark winters, special sunbed-style lightboxes are widely available to the public to try and prevent these depressive episodes. Similar daylight-simulating lamps are also on sale here in the UK. So I think there are certainly some good physical bases for proposing a link between weather, seasons and our well-being (although I repeat that I don't know what scientific evidence there is).
Are the British seasons changing?
Daisy - 05 October 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1195
Answered by: Head of Education Services & Continued Learning, Royal Meteorological Society
01 November 2011 14:32
Yes, as the climate changes, so do the timings of the seasons. The most obvious change is that spring is coming earlier - at least in terms of when plants and animals start doing spring-like things. Of course, the orbit of the Earth around the Sun hasn't changed, so if you define the start of spring as the day when the Sun is overhead at the Equator (21st March ish) then that hasn't changed. The study of 'when things happen', at least in terms of the effects of the seasons on plants and animals, is called phenology.
London Fashion week or Clothes Show Live; Camden Market or Rodeo Drive – where do you go to for your fashion inspiration? Celebrities are always highlighted in the media for their latest fashion favourites or failures but who are the people behind these creations? How did they get to work in this industry and what are the jobs out there that could catapult you into the fashion limelight? From textile technologists to fashion photographers and footwear designers, science exists behind all of your favourite garments and you could become a part of it. Our scientists answering questions in this section will be able to share some of their secrets with you so that you can step out in style as you set off down your career catwalk.
Click on the characters next to each answer to find out more about the jobs that our scientists do when not answering your questions!
Can you get a bag that will withstand all types of weather all year round?
Wahid - 10 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1055
Answered by: Outreach Officer, Department of Engineering
21 September 2011 08:27
Yes. In the UK, this usually means keeping things dry so synthetic fibres, waterproof laminates e.g. PVC coating, welded seams (no leaky needle holes) and a roll-top closure are the way to go. Your local outdoor clothing store will sell you one of these, at a price. In other climates, temperature control becomes important. Electronic equipment and pharmaceuticals have a limited acceptable temperature range. Insulation is the way to go here - the padded bags sold by supermarkets are a start, cold boxes are better. The insulation relies on trapped air, the bag and its contents will warm down or cool up eventually but the time to ambient temperature can be increased using cold bricks or warming gels.
How do we see colour, and what property makes an object/element colourful?
Unknown - 11 May 2011 - 2 answers - id: 352
Answered by: Professor of Materials Physics
12 May 2011 11:35
Hi, when light falls onto the retina in our eye some of it is absorbed, and the energy associated with this absorbed light will cause subtle but important changes to the electrons in the retinal cell molecules (what we physicists call an excitation). Different parts of the spectrum (i.e. the different colours) are able to deliver different amounts of energy, and this causes different excitations - blue light is more energetic than red light for example. At its most fundamental we'd need to invoke quantum mechanics, but the upshot of all this is that the various excitations cause the signals to the brain which it interprets in terms of colours. The colour of an object is determined by which parts of the visible spectrum its surface absorbs and which parts it reflects; so an item which looks blue is made of a material which tends to reflect that part of the spectrum but absorb other parts. Best wishes, Bob - Professor of Materials Physics.
Answered by: Lecturer in Physics
13 May 2011 08:47
At the back of our eyes, we have lots of nerve cells that are sensitive to light, just like the "pixels" in a digital camera. These cells are called photoreceptor cells, and some of these cells are sensitive to particular colours. There are three kinds of "cone" cell, that are sensitive, roughly speaking, to the reds, the greens, and the blues. The brain determines the colour of an object by how much red, green and blue light is detected by the cone cells. The cone cells are actually sensitive to a broad range of colours, so they detect red-ish, blue-ish, and green-ish colours. The colour of an object is determined by which colours are absorbed or reflected by that object. For, example, a red object reflects red light and absorbs other colours. Which colours are absorbed is determined by the atoms and molecules in the object and that is ultimately determined by the arrangement of electrons in that object. Electrons are the tiny particles of electricity that produce static electricity and electric currents. So electricity and light are very closely connected! Brett, Lecturer in Physics.
How do they put the colour in lipsticks?
RachyRoo - 18 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1056
Answered by: Outreach Officer, Department of Engineering
21 September 2011 17:03
To add the colour to lipsticks, cosmetic scientists grind solid non-toxic pigments such as iron oxide (AKA rust) to a fine powder and stir it in to the hot molten lipstick goop - which is an edible mixture of fats and waxes.
Does the colour of clothing affect your temperature?
Unknown - 20 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1057
Answered by: Outreach Officer, Department of Engineering
21 September 2011 17:02
Yes. Dressing head to toe in black and standing in full sun makes you hot and bothered - try it. However we are mammals with clever cooling systems, so you will drink more and sweat more and your core temperature won't change much. Also, some clothing is designed for ventilation so a black hijab is not as hot as skinny jeans and a long sleeved tee shirt in black.
Is there such a thing as disolvable clothes?
trip3 - 02 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1054
Answered by: Outreach Officer, Department of Engineering
21 September 2011 08:18
Yes. In the 1960s you could buy dresses and pants made from paper and designed to be disposable. I think the paper had a high fibre content - like paper bank notes - so a frock didn't dissolve in the rain. Soluble films are available now and used to make lacy machine embroidery. Chains of stitches are locked together by sewing across a sheet of plastic film, then the special plastic is dissolved out in warm water, leaving just the chains of stitching. September's Sewing World magazine features a scarf project using this material. See also www.solublefilm.co.uk
Could it be possible to have a virtual wardrobe?
Unknown - 02 September 2011 - 2 answers - id: 1046
Answered by: Head of scientific computing, Department of medical physics & bioengineering
14 September 2011 18:23
Flexible computer displays are being produced now, so it is therefore possible to make a garment out of one. However, part of a fabric is the way it moves and different fabrics (and combinations of fabrics) move in different ways: it is possible to make the wearable display look like silk, but as soon as you start moving it'll be obviously solid plastic. So the current answer is "yes - as long as you stand still".
Answered by: Development Manager
12 September 2011 15:08
Whilst this is a bit of a guess, and assuming you are talking about being able to wear clothes that change how they look depending upon some kind of configuration, it is conceivable that in the not too distant future this will be technically possible - in terms of changing the colour of a "fabric", but it may not be economic. To do so, one would have to wear something that emitted or reflected some colours to make them appear to be coloured.
As for different styles, I think this would be much further off - and I think could be possible in the next 10-20 years, but would not be economic, and would only be able to change the style slightly - for instance give something more of a ruched look rather than a plain look.
I am not sure either would be practical to wear, and may not be comfortable to wear - but in theory, they could be produced - but don't hold your breath!
Why is shampoo coloured when in the bottle in liquid form, yet as a foam it is white?
Unknown - 26 May 2011 - 1 answer - id: 661
Answered by: Postdoctoral researcher in Biochemistry
31 May 2011 12:42
Foam is in effect trapped gas (in shampoo air) in a liquid (or a solid). The coloured shampoo liquid surrounds the air bubbles with a very thin film. Thus you can think of foam as being mostly air. The substance that makes out the colour of the liquid shampoo is very much diluted in foam and therefore, you can't see the colour anymore.
What is the strongest yet still very flexible material used in clothing?
Unknown - 02 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1047
Answered by: Development Manager
12 September 2011 15:10
Probably the strongest material in common use in a fabric is silk, which is rumoured to have the tensile strength of steel (for the same size of thread). I would prefer clothes made in silk than steel though!
What is the most expensive material ever used in fashion?
Bourne - 03 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1038
Answered by: Plant Scientist
12 September 2011 10:59
I don't know what the most expensive material EVER used is, but the Roman Emperor Diocletian created an official price list for the Roman Empire (called The Edict on Maximum Prices), which imposed official price limits for over a 1000 goods, in an effort to control inflation. One pound of purple-dyed silk (worn by the Emperor himself) was set at 150,000 denarii - the same as a price of a whole live lion.
When were jeans invented?
Unknown - 04 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1062
Answered by: Outreach Officer, Department of Engineering
21 September 2011 17:43
Levi Strauss claim that jeans were invented in 1873, around the time the sewing machine as we know it was designed.
What is the heaviest outfit anyone has ever worn?
emmmm(: - 02 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1058
Answered by: Outreach Officer, Department of Engineering
21 September 2011 17:09
According to wikipedia, 16th century European armour had a mass of around 25kg - 1/3 ot the mass of the bloke that wore it. Can anyone beat that?
What is the difference between bio- and non-bio detergents?
Unknown - 06 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1063
Answered by: Outreach Officer, Department of Engineering
21 September 2011 17:17
Bio detergents contain enzymes which the manufacturers claim help to break down the dirt. They are also more likely to cause skin irritation in sensitive people which is probably why both products thrive in the supermarket.
What is candle wax made from exactly?
Chereen - 15 May 2011 - 1 answer - id: 513
Answered by: Development Manager
19 May 2011 05:51
Candles can be made from a range of materials, but possibly the most common material is paraffin wax. Beeswax can also be used, as can a variety of other waxes including tallow, waxes from plants (e.g. palm wax) and wax from sperm whales (spermaceti).
Is cotton a natural product?
Anna Haughton - 03 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1059
Answered by: Outreach Officer, Department of Engineering
21 September 2011 17:15
Yes. It is a natural vegetable fibre from the seed pods of plants of the genus Gossypium. The fibre is almost pure cellulose.
If wool shrinks when wet, why don't sheep shrink in the rain?
Unknown - 10 May 2011 - 1 answer - id: 353
Answered by: Professor of Materials Physics
12 May 2011 11:25
Hi, the wool we wear has been heavily treated so it's not really the same as when it's on the sheep's back. For one thing, the wool fibres on a sheep are coated with a natural oil, lanolin, which effectively makes them waterproof. Best wishes, Bob - Professor of Materials Physics.
How do zips work?
Unknown - 04 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1061
Answered by: Outreach Officer, Department of Engineering
21 September 2011 17:24
Metal zips and chunky plastic zips have a bulge on one side of each tooth and an indent on the other. The teeth are offset on each side of the zipper tape and the bulges and dents have a carefully curved profile. When you drag the Y-shaped slider over the teeth, it squashes the teeth together so each dent slides over the bulge on the tooth opposite and below it and locks into place. Dragging the slider back down reverses the process and forces the teeth apart. Lightweight plastic zips use a coil of stiff nylon to make the bulges and dents.
How can fabrics repel dirt and water?
Unknown - 03 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1048
Answered by: Development Manager
12 September 2011 15:18
A fabric can be made to be water and dirt repellent by making the pores smaller to prevent water molecules passing through - or by using a barrier that relies on osmosis (where molecules with sweat will pass through a membrane to the side with a lower concentration of sweat).
To stop the dirt adhering, you need a fabric with a very smooth coating - so one way this can be done is with a teflon coating - as used in frying pans - and this coating is very smooth, so dirt or your cooking finds it more difficult to stick to the surface - and makes it easier to remove the dirt - or cooking. Just don't confuse your frying pan with your clothes, as it will either ruin your food, or be very uncomfortable to wear!
Has the average dress size of a woman gone up over the years in the same proportion as the height increase?
Valentina Klejnow - 09 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1064
Answered by: Outreach Officer, Department of Engineering
21 September 2011 17:31
No! It's gone up faster because we are plumper than our ancestors. However manufacturers use a tactic called "vanity sizing" - what was a size 12 in the 1970s is a 10 or an 8 now. We all feel good about fitting into a smaller size and more inclined to buy clothes with lower numbers. Sewing patterns stopped vanity sizing in the 1970s, which is why your pattern size is different to your high street size. Use a tape measure on yourself before buying a sewing pattern!
Do skinny jeans cause any damage to your body?
Tom Price - 01 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1018
Answered by: Medical student
04 September 2011 22:52
No - providing you're not wearing them so tight that it cuts the blood off to your feet! Having said that, wearing too low rise jeans that are too tight around the hips causes a condition called meralgia paraesthetica (also known as entrapment of the lateral cutaneous nerve of the thigh). The nerve that supplies the outside part of your thigh becomes irritated as it gets pushed on between the tight jeans and the bones of your hip and sufferers tend to get pins and needles and pain down the outside of their thigh. The cure - stop wearing tight jeans!
Can some metallic fabrics conduct electricity?
Anna Haughton - 03 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1060
Answered by: Outreach Officer, Department of Engineering
21 September 2011 17:12
Yes - if they are made with real metal, not just lightweight shiny plastic. Cloth of gold is made from the best conductor there is. Most fashion "metallic" fabrics are the plastic sort though because it is cheap and lightweight clothing is nicer to wear.
What are science lab coats made out of?
Amy - 10 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1065
Answered by: Outreach Officer, Department of Engineering
21 September 2011 17:41
Cotton, usually. It is cellulose, which is fairly chemically inert. This means it doesn't catch light quickly and tends to smoulder if it does instead of going up in a whoosh of flame. It is reasonably resistant to acids and alkalis - it gives you enough time to take the garment off in an emergency. Lab chemists like heavy denim jeans because they are cotton too. Any bad smells coming from lab coats are a consequence of an inadequate laundry regime. They are not part of the natural make up of the material or the wearer.
How do you make waterproof fabric?
Unknown - 11 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1066
Answered by: Outreach Officer, Department of Engineering
21 September 2011 17:51
Waterproof fabrics can be made in several ways: 1) Use a fibre like cotton that swells when it gets wet, weave it tightly and it will seal itself in the wet - this is the idea behind the cotton duck used for bike luggage. 2) Use a fine fibre like nylon and weave it so tightly no water droplets can fit through the gaps. Water has quite high surface tension which helps here. 3) Coat an ordinary fabric in a waterproof film. Some of the films used are breathable but others are not and the clothing is like wearing a plastic bag. Any holes made by pinning and stitching have to be sealed up carefully too, but this is the most common way to make a waterproof fabric.
Are some items of clothing made using science?
Unknown - 02 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1049
Answered by: Development Manager
12 September 2011 15:21
Some items of clothing are made with the use of science. Just considering the following fabrics - which are just a tiny proportion of those made using science, and hopefully you will be convinced - Nylon (developed by some chemists); polyester; Velcro; Teflon coatings for clothes to make them easier to clean; Gortex; lycra; elastic; plastic buttons; ...
Will wearing high shoes everyday affect your feet?
Sareena - 05 September 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1050
Answered by: Development Manager
12 September 2011 15:25
I think there are a number of factors here - one is the height of the heel. The higher the heel, the more weight is put onto the balls of the feet, and your toes. Our bodies weren't designed to have our weight so localised, so this will affect them. It has been reported that Victoria Beckham has had bunions from wearing her high heels, and she has been advised not to wear them as high - or as much.
If you wear a heel that supports all of the foot fairly evenly, I am guessing the heel will not be pronounced - in which case, it will not be "high" - so I would be surprised if you can have a high heel that can be worn all day without affecting your feet - and probably your back as well!
Food glorious food! There are so many food facts out there – eat at least five fruit and vegetables a day, eat a healthy balanced diet, don’t eat between meals, calcium is good for your bones, keep fatty and sugary foods to a minimum – but how many of us know of the science behind these facts? There are a huge range of scientists working in this area in a wide range of settings. You could be a dietitian working in a hospital or a nutritionist talking to healthy schools; maybe you would rather be a microbiologist working in a lab; an agriculturalist working outside; or maybe you see yourself as the perfect candidate to become a brewer? Whatever your career options, there are so many issues to overcome as we increase our worldwide population numbers, such as how we will be able to sustain a larger population in the future. Maybe you could be the government adviser to overcome these problems? Energy and nutrients, diet and health, production and processing, or ingredients and food science – go through some of the questions below to gain food for thought and see where science and maths can take you.
Click on the characters next to each answer to find out more about the jobs that our scientists do when not answering your questions!
Why do some people have intolerances to certain foods?
Arrghonaut - 10 May 2011 - 1 answer - id: 792
Answered by: Consultant, Food Safety, IFST
05 July 2011 08:03
A food allergy is a clear allergic reaction in your body to certain foods and at its most dangerous people can have anaphylactic shock where their body undergoes an extreme reaction which can prove fatal if they do not receive the appropriate treatment. Food intolerance is not so well understood. Many people know if they eat a certain food they will have a reaction e.g. bloating, change in bowel movements but there is no immunological response that can be measured. Food related migraines are an example of a food intolerance. Migraines can be triggered by a range of foods e.g. cheese, red wine, citrus fruit, chocolate. Much more research needs to be done to understand intolerance fully.
Why do people develop food allergies?
Unknown - 17 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 827
Answered by: PhD Student
12 July 2011 18:27
Allergies are caused by your immune cells becoming hyperactive when they encounter something that you are allergic to, say a peanut. Your immune system recognises this normally harmless substance as a pathogen and tries to attack it. This can can inflammation, which you might see as a rash on your skin or, in rare cases, can cause your airways to narrow.
Why can children not eat eggs raw?
Anish Patel - 10 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 780
Answered by: Development Manager
23 June 2011 12:15
I think the main reason for children being recommended not to eat raw eggs, is that their bodies don't have as much immunity to toxins as adults. So if there is some bacteria in the eggs, a child is more susceptible, and any illness will be more noticeable.
Why are we able to eat some plants that have poisonous parts, for example, we can eat rhubarb stems but the leaves are poisonous?
Unknown - 30 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 805
Answered by: Consultant, Food Safety, IFST
05 July 2011 08:08
The natural poisons in foods are called glycoalkaloids and they can be present in the whole food or a particular part or when the food undergoes some kind of natural reaction. Potatoes when they start to green produce a poison called solanine which is a glycoalkaloid which is why we are advised to cut off the green parts of a potato when we prepare them. It is also why they have colour cameras on crisp production lines to make sure that any crisps that are green are blown off the conveyor belt by an air jet!
Why are some people allergic to food?
(null) - 10 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 731
Answered by: Senior Research Fellow, Central Biotechnology Service
10 June 2011 15:53
Your immune system is an amazing thing. It is divided roughly into two parts; innate immunity and adaptive immunity. The innate part simply mops up anything that seems odd whereas your adaptive immune system can do just that, adapt and evolve to deal with new and unseen bugs and nasty chemicals. This part of your immune system is controlled by DNA that is unique to you and this is where problems can sometimes occur. You may have heard of autoimmune diseases where a persons immune system attacks bits of them instead of the nasties. In food allergies this can also occur. Some people's immune systems think that everything from peanuts to fish to latex rubber are invading nasties to be killed at once. These immune reactions can sometimes be so aggressive that the person needs to see a doctor as soon as possible. In fact some people carry adrenaline as a way to calm these reactions down until the trigger is removed or they can get some help.
Why are people lactose intolerant?
Unknown - 25 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 859
Answered by: Chartered Building Services Engineer
27 July 2011 10:17
In order to digest Lactose (which is a sugar found in milk & other dairy products) you need the enzyme Lactase. When you are very little, you produce lots of lactase so you can breast feed or drink other milk. As you get older and are weaned you start to produce less lactase. For some people the amount of lactase they produce drops so low that they are no longer able to digest lactose (and therefore dairy products) at all! This can also be triggered by certain illnesses that affect the digestive system.
What makes you allergic to bananas?
Emmaaa - 01 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 672
Answered by: PhD research scholar in Microelectronics & Nanostructures
02 June 2011 09:59
Like all food allergies, banana allergy is also caused due to a protein known as chitinase. Chitinase often causes the immune system of the body to react in an unfavorable manner. This is a type 1 allergy caused by contact with bananas. People who have a banana allergy may also be allergic to kiwi fruit and avocado because the protein chitinase is also present in these other fruits.
Banana allergy is not a very common disorder. A lot of people who claim to be allergic to bananas in fact only have intolerance towards the fruit. There are certain amines in bananas which cannot be digested by those who have a weak and sensitive digestive system. The enzyme called diamine oxidase, which is used to digest these amines may be absent in certain individuals. Such people are not able to breakdown the proteins in bananas and therefore have allergy type reactions which are often mistaken for the actual banana allergy.
What makes people have food allergies?
Unknown - 27 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 828
Answered by: PhD Student
12 July 2011 18:33
Allergies are caused by your immune cells becoming hyperactive when they encounter something that you are allergic to, say a peanut. Your immune system recognises this normally harmless substance as a pathogen and tries to attack it. This can can inflammation, which you might see as a rash on your skin or, in rare cases, can cause your airways to narrow.
What makes a person allergic to certain foods?
Unknown - 05 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 779
Answered by: Development Manager
27 June 2011 11:32
Most people are allergic to some allergens - but some reactions are so common, they are not considered allergic reactions - such as those to nettle stings or bee and wasp stings. As for food reactions, once again, it is a protein in the food that the body considers to be harmful, and so tries to protect the body from the allergen by releasing a chemical call histamine. Histamine performs a variety of functions, but one of them allows more white blood cells to attack the pathogen. In extreme cases, a person will need a kick start as their body over-reacts to a pathogen - this is known as anaphalaxis, and is often associated with nut allergies. The allergic response has a strong hereditary link, although environmental factors can play a part, with the influence being more effective in younger people.
What is the weirdest thing someone is allergic to?
Anish Patel - 10 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 804
Answered by: Consultant, Food Safety, IFST
05 July 2011 08:05
It may not be weird, but most people that are allergic to kiwi are actually triggered by the hairs on the kiwi and mostly they also have an allergy to latex too.
What foods help hayfever and what foods hinder hayfever?
Unknown - 03 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 762
Answered by: Medical student
21 June 2011 01:04
To the best of my knowledge, there is no strong evidence that any changes in diet affect the way a person suffers from hayfever, which is an allergy to pollen. Having said this, some people also develop associated food allergies. For example, people who are allergic to silver birch pollen have tended to develop oral allergies to things like apples, peaches, cherries, carrots, celery, hazelnuts, peanuts or walnuts. Similarly, people who are allergic to grass pollen have tended to develop oral allergies to tomato, melon or watermelon. They experience the allergy as a tingling or itching within their mouths when they eat the food raw; it very very rarely develops into any more serious like anaphylaxis.
How does the lactose in milk affect those who are lactose intollerant? And how do they produce lactic acid?
Unknown - 03 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 711
Answered by: PhD research scholar in Microelectronics & Nanostructures
03 June 2011 18:35
Lactose intolerance is the inability to metabolize lactose, because of a lack of the required enzyme lactase in the digestive system. Disaccharides cannot be absorbed through the wall of the small intestine into the bloodstream, so in the absence of lactase, lactose present in ingested dairy products passes intact into the colon. The enteric bacteria then quickly switches its operation to lactose metabolism, and the resulting fermentation produces copious amounts of gas (a mixture of hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane). This, in turn, may cause a range of abdominal symptoms, including stomach cramps, nausea, bloating, acid reflux and flatulence.
Lactic acid bacteria in the intestines breaks lactose down into short-chain fatty acids and other substances that can be absorbed by the colon.Acidophilus is one of many types of lactic acid bacteria. Lactic acid bacteria are available as dietary supplements.Yogurt containing live active bacteria is believed to improve lactose digestion for the same reason that probiotics are thought to work.
Would you die if you just ate meat forever and nothing else?
Unknown - 28 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 829
Answered by: PhD Student
12 July 2011 18:49
If you ate offal such as liver and heart as well as steaks and mince, then you would get most of the essential vitamins and minerals that you need to survive. However, you wouldn't get any fibre if you only ate meat. While this wouldn't be fatal, it would causes problems for your digestive system.
Why is it so important to have a balanced diet?
Sophie - 03 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 733
Answered by: PhD Student in bioactive glass research
10 June 2011 23:27
Your body needs certain things to function properly, if you don't include these things in your diet you can become ill. By eating a balanced diet it means that you are providing your body with all the things that it needs and not giving it too much of the things it doesn't need as this too can make you ill. If you don't have enough carbohydrates in your diet your body has no fuel so you don't have any energy your body will have to find another source for that energy or you'll always feel tired. If you don't include enough calcium in your diet your bones will be weak. So I guess what I'm saying really is that a balanced diet is essential for you to stay healthy.
Why is food unhealthy?
Unknown - 26 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1032
Answered by: Development Manager
10 September 2011 10:48
Food isn't unhealthy - but some foods can be unhealthy if taken in the "wrong" amounts. So we need fat in our diets, but if we eat too much, we get fat. We need salt in our diets, but in excess, that can cause high blood pressure. We need iron to replenish our red blood cells, but you can eat too much iron as well! So, we need to view food as good, as we need it, but need to be careful to have a balanced diet as well!
Why is food good and bad?
Unknown - 27 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1034
Answered by: Development Manager
10 September 2011 11:01
Most foods are good - or perhaps not bad - in moderation - so if you eat a piece of dark chocolate, it may be pleasant to eat, and not unhealthy - but eat a large bar of milk chocolate and it will probably exceed your recommended calorie intake for that day! Similarly, eating a small, lean cut of meat can provide protein and be healthy, but eat e.g. a fatty piece of meat, and it won't be as healthy - so it is not the food, but how much and whether you are eating healthily. I recall reading about an expedition to one of the Poles, and calorie intake was something like 2-3 times the recommended intake for a man! It was needed because of the extreme cold and physical exertion!
Why are vegetables good for you, but sugar isn't?
Unknown - 26 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1033
Answered by: Development Manager
10 September 2011 10:55
Vegetables alone may not provide all the nutrients we need to survive - but maybe if you choose them carefully, you can survive on them alone. Sugar is used by the body to provide energy, and we can get enough sugar without eating sweets etc. However, if we eat too much sugar, our bodies cannot use it, and so stores it for a "rainy day" - this is laid down as fat. And if we have too much fat, we are prone to more illnesses - so we want to keep our sugar consumption balanced to be healthy! I am sure an Olympic athlete can eat more sugar without putting on weight than I can!
What is the importance of a balanced diet?
Nikki_Mc - 15 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1029
Answered by: Development Manager
10 September 2011 10:25
A balanced diet has the right proportions of minerals, vitamins, protein, carbohydrates etc., so that our bodies are able to digest and extract those elements it needs efficiently, and yet not adding to surpluses that we don't want - which may be detrimental if eaten in too high a quantity - such as salt and fat!
What is the importance of a balanced diet containing vitamins & minerals?
Unknown - 12 May 2011 - 1 answer - id: 420
Answered by: Postdoctoral Researcher in Microbiology & Structural Biology
14 May 2011 12:25
Vitamins and minerals are needed by our bodies as our cells cannot produce them, but need them to be able to work. We get most of our vitamins and minerals from the food we eat, but a few vitamins are made by the bacteria which live in the large intestine.
We need iron to make the haemoglobin which gives red blood cells their colour and allows them to transport oxygen. Calcium is needed to make teeth and bones and most cells use it to function properly.
The vitamins we eat are used by our cells. The B vitamins that breakfast cereals are fortified with allow our bodies to use the energy from sugars and to make the molecules that cells need to function. Diseases, like scurvy and rickets are caused by a lack of vitamins, so it is very important to ensure your diet contains enough vitamins.
What is the best food?
Unknown - 26 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1031
Answered by: Development Manager
10 September 2011 10:51
Most foods can be "best" - according to what our body needs at that time! A balanced diet contains lots of "best foods" contributing to satisfying what our bodies need. Once we start eating too much of a "best" food, then it may become a "poor" food - so if we eat the right amount of salt - that is healthy - too much and it can cause high blood pressure. Similarly we need iron to replenish our red blood cells, but too much can be unhealthy!
What foods are essential for a no meat (including fish) diet?
Hannah - 02 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 732
Answered by: PhD Student in bioactive glass research
10 June 2011 23:18
Essenially a diet with no meat of fish would still need to be a balanced diet so you would still need to eat food from each of the food groups, carbohydrates (breads and pasta type foods) you would still need fats and fibre and vitamins and mineral ( some people feel that if your not eating meat you will need to take vitamin and mineral suplements to make sure you stay healthy) and finally you still need to eat protein which is normally eaten as meat, eggs and cheeses although there are some proteins that are not meat.
What are the benefits and risks of eating nuts? How many nuts and of what kind are recommended for a vegetarian?
Gaurish - 15 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1270
Answered by: Mechanical engineering student
08 December 2011 14:34
Benefits include improved heart health (high in unsaturated fats) and lowered low-density lipoprotein (the "bad" cholesterol). Nuts are also high in fibre and can therefore fill you up more quickly. However, if they are covered in sugar, chocolate or salt that can cancel out the health benefits. Your blood pressure can actually be raised if the nuts are fried in oil and salted! They are also high in calories due to their high fat content - consuming a small handful (1oz, roughly 28.4g) of nuts will set you back 160-200kcal on average. You will need to substitute nuts with something else in your diet (e.g. instead of cookies) if you don't want to gain weight.
There is no specific selection of nuts recommended for a vegetarian because all varieties contain the amino acids and healthy fats you need. You could try walnuts, which have high levels of omega-3 fatty acids. Almonds, peanuts, brazil nuts, pumpkin/sunflower seeds all seem to be good choices too. As little as 1oz a day will give you all the nutrients you need!
How does a vegetarian make sure his diet is complete ?
Gaurish - 11 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 925
Answered by: Project Coordinator for Dublin City of Science 2012
11 August 2011 15:01
Firstly, some general advice is here:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthy_diet
Secondly... usually vegetarians require some extra protein and are unable to intake sufficient complete proteins (usually gotten from animal flesh). You can take protein supplements which usually taste kinda nasty or cook more beans with rice and other things that combine to make complete proteins. The more varied fruits and veg and nuts and seeds you consume the more likely you are to have a complete diet.
How come different species need different foods to live?
Unknown - 19 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 1030
Answered by: Development Manager
10 September 2011 10:29
Different species may have a different diet for a number of reasons - firstly maybe the environment precludes them eating some foods; maybe they have evolved to eat certain foods so that there isn't too much competition for any foodstuffs. Some creatures may need more energy from their foods than others - but I suspect most animals will require to eat so they obtain similar nutrients so they can have energy, and can replenish the minerals and vitamins needed. I think it will be more a case of the proportions may differ between species, and how they obtain them will differ!
How can you incorporate '5 a day' into a busy lifestyle?
Kevin - 10 June 2011 - 1 answer - id: 748
Answered by: Development Manager
15 June 2011 06:56
It is difficult to answer specifically without knowing your lifestyle and current diet - but instead of snacking on maybe a packet of crisps maybe consider eating an apple or some nuts; for breakfast maybe think about swapping sugar for berries or banana on your cereals (I doubt they would go with bacon and eggs!); and maybe think about some home cooking for dinner - whereby you cook in batches and freeze - which can still make a pasta dish or a stir fry quite efficient; and for lunch think of replacing a sandwich with a salad - then it can be quite easy to exceed your five a day!